Ötzi

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Ötzi the Iceman
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For other uses, see Ötzi (disambiguation).

Ötzi
natural mummy of a Chalcolithic (Copper Age) European man
Height1.6 m (5 ft 3 in)
WebsiteSouth Tyrol Museum of Archaeology

Ötzi, also called the Iceman, is the

natural mummy of a man who lived between 3350 and 3105 BC. Ötzi's remains were discovered on 19 September 1991, in the Ötztal Alps (hence the nickname "Ötzi", German: [œtsi]) at the border between Austria and Italy. He is Europe's oldest known natural human mummy, offering an unprecedented view of Chalcolithic
(Copper Age) Europeans.

Because of the presence of an arrowhead embedded in his left shoulder and various other wounds, researchers believe Ötzi was killed. The nature of his life and the circumstances of his death are the subject of much investigation and speculation. His remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, South Tyrol, Italy.

Discovery

Ötzi is located in Alps
Ötzi
class=notpageimage|
Discovery site marked on a map of the Alps

Ötzi was found on 19 September 1991 by two German tourists, at an elevation of 3,210 m (10,530 ft) on the east ridge of the Fineilspitze in the Ötztal Alps on the Austrian–Italian border, near Similaun mountain and the Tisenjoch pass. When the tourists, Helmut and Erika Simon, first saw the body, they both believed that they had happened upon a recently deceased mountaineer.[3] The next day, a mountain gendarme and the keeper of the nearby Similaunhütte first attempted to remove the body, which was frozen in ice below the torso, using a pneumatic drill and ice axes, but bad weather forced them to give up. Within a short time, eight groups visited the site, among whom were mountaineers Hans Kammerlander and Reinhold Messner.

The body was extracted on 22 September and salvaged the following day. It was transported to the office of the medical examiner in

archaeologist Konrad Spindler of the University of Innsbruck. He dated the find to be "at least four thousand years old" on the basis of the typology of an axe among the retrieved objects.[4][5] Tissue samples from the corpse and other accompanying materials were later analyzed at several scientific institutions and their results unequivocally concluded that the remains belonged to someone who had lived between 3359 and 3105 BC, or some 5,000 years ago.[5] More specific estimates find that there was a 66% chance he died between 3239 and 3105 BC, a 33% chance he died between 3359 and 3294 BC, and a 1% chance he died between 3277 and 3268 BC.[6]

Border dispute

At the

Etsch. Near Tisenjoch, the glacier (which has since retreated) complicated establishing the watershed and the border was drawn too far north. Although Ötzi's find site drains to the Austrian side, land surveys in October 1991 ultimately proved that the body had been located 92.56 m (101.22 yd) inside Italian territory, which was in consonance with Italy's original 1919 ownership claim.[7]
The province of South Tyrol claimed property rights but agreed to let Innsbruck University finish its scientific examinations. Since 1998, he has been on display at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, the capital of South Tyrol.[8]

Scientific analyses

The corpse has been extensively examined, measured, X-rayed, and dated. Tissues and intestinal contents have been examined microscopically, as have the items found with the body. In August 2004, frozen bodies of three Austro-Hungarian soldiers killed during the Battle of San Matteo (1918) were found on the mountain Punta San Matteo in Trentino. One body was sent to a museum in the hope that research on how the environment had affected its preservation would help unravel Ötzi's past.[9]

Body

Ötzi the Iceman half uncovered, face down in a pool of water with iced banks
Ötzi the Iceman, while still frozen in the glacier, photographed by Helmut Simon upon the discovery of the body in September 1991

By the most recent estimates, at the time of his death, Ötzi was 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) tall, weighed about 50 kg (110 lb), and was about 45 years of age.[10][11] When his body was found, it weighed 13.750 kg (30 lb 5.0 oz).[12][13] Because the body was covered in ice shortly after his death, it had only partially deteriorated. Initial reports claimed that his penis and most of his scrotum were missing, but this was later shown to be unfounded.[14] Analysis of pollen, dust grains and the isotopic composition of his tooth enamel indicates that he spent his childhood near the present South Tyrol village of Feldthurns, north of Bolzano, but later went to live in valleys about 50 kilometres (31 mi) farther north.[15]

In 2009, a

einkorn wheat bran,[18] quite possibly eaten in the form of bread. In the proximity of the body, and thus possibly originating from the Iceman's provisions, chaff and grains of einkorn and barley, and seeds of flax and poppy were discovered, as well as kernels of sloes (small plum-like fruits of the blackthorn tree) and various seeds of berries growing in the wild.[19]

sloes in the autumn; these must have been stored from the previous year.[20]

High levels of both copper particles and arsenic were found in Ötzi's hair. This, along with Ötzi's copper axe blade, which is 99.7% pure copper, has led scientists to speculate that Ötzi was involved in copper smelting.[21]

By examination of the proportions of Ötzi's

pelvis, it was postulated that Ötzi's lifestyle included long walks over hilly terrain. This degree of mobility is not characteristic of other Copper Age Europeans. This may indicate that Ötzi was a high-altitude shepherd.[22]

Using modern 3D scanning technology, a facial reconstruction has been created for the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology in Bolzano, Italy. It shows Ötzi looking old for his 45 years, with deep-set brown eyes, a beard, a furrowed face, and sunken cheeks. He is depicted as looking tired and ungroomed.[23]

Health

Ötzi apparently had

parasite. During CT scans, it was observed that three or four of his right ribs had been cracked when he had been lying face down after death, or where the ice had crushed his body. One of his fingernails (of the two found) shows three Beau's lines, indicating he was sick three times in the six months before he died. The last incident, two months before he died, lasted about two weeks.[24] It was also found that his epidermis, the outer skin layer, was missing, a natural process from his mummification in ice.[25] Ötzi's teeth showed considerable internal deterioration from cavities. These oral pathologies may have been brought about by his grain-heavy, high carbohydrate diet.[26] DNA analysis in February 2012 revealed that Ötzi was lactose intolerant, supporting the theory that lactose intolerance was still common at that time, despite the increasing spread of agriculture and dairying.[27] Ötzi's lungs were examined endoscopically and were found to be blackened by soot, probably due to his frequent proximity to open fires for warmth and cooking.[28][29][30]

Skeletal details and tattooing

Ötzi had a total of 61 tattoos, consisting of 19 groups of black lines ranging from 1–3 mm (0.039–0.118 in) in width and 7–40 mm (0.28–1.57 in) in length.[31] These include groups of parallel lines running along the longitudinal axis of his body and to both sides of the lumbar spine, as well as a cruciform mark behind the right knee and on the right ankle, and parallel lines around the left wrist. The greatest concentration of markings is found on his legs, which together exhibit 12 groups of lines.[32] A microscopic examination of samples collected from these tattoos revealed that they were created from pigment manufactured out of fireplace ash or soot.[33] This pigment was then rubbed into small linear incisions or punctures.[34] It has been suggested that Ötzi was repeatedly tattooed in the same locations, since the majority of them are quite dark.[34]

whipworm, which he is thought to have had.[37][34]

At one point, it was thought that Ötzi was the oldest tattooed human mummy yet discovered.[38][39] In 2018, however, tattoos were discovered on nearly contemporaneous Egyptian mummies.[40]

Many of Ötzi's tattoos originally went unnoticed, since they are difficult to see with the naked eye. In 2015, researchers photographed the body using noninvasive

multispectral techniques to capture images on different light wavelengths that are imperceptible by humans, revealing the remainder of his tattoos.[37][34]

Clothes and shoes

Archeoparc (Schnals valley / South Tyrol). Museum: Reconstruction of the neolithic clothes worn by Ötzi

Ötzi wore a cloak made of woven grass

sinew. His belt had a pouch sewn to it that contained a cache of useful items: a scraper, a drill, a flint flake, a bone awl and a dried fungus (see 'Tools and equipment' below).[42]

A replica of Ötzi the iceman's shoes, taken at the Bata Shoe Museum

The shoes have since been reproduced by a Czech academic, who said that "because the shoes are actually quite complex, I'm convinced that even 5,300 years ago, people had the equivalent of a

snowshoes. According to this theory, the item currently interpreted as part of a backpack is actually the wood frame and netting of one snowshoe and animal hide to cover the face.[44]

The leather loincloth and hide coat were made from sheepskin. Genetic analysis showed that the sheep species was nearer to modern domestic European sheep than to wild sheep; the items were made from the skins of at least four animals. Part of the coat was made from domesticated goat belonging to a mitochondrial haplogroup (a common female ancestor) that inhabits central Europe today. The coat was made from several animals from two different species and was stitched together using hides. The leggings were made from domesticated goat leather.[45] A similar set of 5,000-year-old leggings discovered in Schnidejoch, Switzerland, were made from goat leather as well.[46]

Irish and Italian researchers were able to undertake analysis of the mitochondrial DNA from six different items of the body's clothing and published their findings in the journal Scientific Reports. These showed that the shoelaces were made from the European genetic population of cattle. The quiver was made from wild roe deer, the fur hat was made from a genetic lineage of brown bear which lives in the region today.[47][48][49]

Tools and equipment

bow string, an unidentified tool, and an antler tool which might have been used for sharpening arrow points.[53] There was also an unfinished yew longbow that was 1.82 m (72 in) long.[54]

A replica of Ötzi's copper axe

In addition, among Ötzi's possessions were

firelighting kit. The kit featured pieces of over a dozen different plants, in addition to flint and pyrite
for creating sparks.

Ötzi's copper

birch-tar and tight leather lashing. The blade part of the head extends out of the lashing and shows clear signs of having been used to chop and cut. At the time, such an axe would have been a valuable possession, important both as a tool and as a status symbol for the bearer.[56]

Genetic analysis

Ötzi's full genome was first sequenced in 2012;[58] a new, high-coverage genome with much less modern human contamination was published in 2023.[59]

According to the 2012 study, the

Sardinians.[64][65][66][67] He was part of the migration of early European farmers who migrated from Anatolia to Europe in large numbers during the 7th millennium BC, replacing earlier European hunter-gatherers as dominant population.[68] DNA analysis also showed him at high risk of atherosclerosis and lactose intolerance, with the presence of the DNA sequence of Borrelia burgdorferi, possibly making him the earliest known human with Lyme disease.[58][69] A later analysis suggested the sequence may have been a different Borrelia species.[70]

The 2023 study on Ötzi's genome found a very high proportion (90%) of

Western Hunter Gatherers, was likely affected by baldness, and may have suffered from obesity-related metabolic disorders.[71]

In October 2013, it was reported that 19 modern

Innsbruck Medical University had analysed the DNA of over 3,700 Tyrolean male blood donors and found 19 (c. 0.5%) who shared the same paternal haplogroup with the 5,300-year-old man.[72][73]

Blood

In May 2012, scientists announced the discovery that Ötzi still had intact blood cells. These are the oldest complete human blood cells ever identified. In most bodies this old, the blood cells are either shrunken or mere remnants, but Ötzi's have the same dimensions as living red blood cells and resembled a modern-day sample.[74][75]

H. pylori analysis

In 2016, researchers reported on a study from the extraction of twelve samples from the gastrointestinal tract of Ötzi to analyze the origins of the Helicobacter pylori in his gut.[76] The H. pylori strain found in his gastrointestinal tract was, surprisingly, the hpAsia2 strain, a strain today found primarily in South Asian and Central Asian populations, with extremely rare occurrences in modern European populations.[76] The strain found in Ötzi's gut is most similar to three modern individuals from Northern India; the strain itself is, of course, older than the modern Northern Indian strain.[76]

Stomach

Ötzi's stomach was completely full and its contents were mostly undigested. In 2018, researchers performed a thorough analysis of his stomach and intestines to gain insights on Chalcolithic meal composition and dietary habits.

gamma-terpinene, implying the intake of herbs, and several nutritious minerals indicating red meat or dairy consumption. Through analysis of DNA and protein traces, the researchers were able to identify the contents of Ötzi's last meal, composed of fat and meat from ibex and red deer as well as einkorn wheat. The results of atomic force microscopy and Raman spectroscopy analysis reveal that he consumed fresh or dried wild meat. A previous study detected charcoal particles in his lower intestine, which indicate that fire was present during some part of the food preparation process, but it was likely used in drying out the meat or smoking it.[77][78]

Cause of death

Reconstructions of Ötzi's last days, based on his last itinerary and meals, the state of his wounds, the causes of his death and the damaged and insufficient equipment, following multiple studies

The cause of death remained uncertain until 10 years after the discovery of the body.[79] It was initially believed that Ötzi died from exposure during a winter storm. Later it was speculated that he may have been a victim of a ritual sacrifice, perhaps for being a chieftain.[80][81] This explanation was inspired by theories previously advanced for the bodies recovered from peat bogs such as the Tollund Man and the Lindow Man.[81]

Arrowhead and blood analyses

In 2001, X-rays and a CT scan revealed that Ötzi had an arrowhead lodged in his left shoulder when he died[82] and a matching small tear on his coat.[83] The discovery of the arrowhead prompted researchers to theorize Ötzi died of blood loss from the wound, which would probably have been fatal even if modern medical techniques had been available.[84] Further research found that the arrow's shaft had been removed before death, and close examination of the body found bruises and cuts to the hands, wrists and chest and cerebral trauma indicative of a blow to the head. One of the cuts, to the base of his thumb, reached down to the bone but had had no time to heal before his death. Currently, it is believed that Ötzi bled to death after the arrow shattered the scapula and damaged nerves and blood vessels before lodging near the lung.[85]

DNA analyses taken in 2003 are claimed to have revealed traces of blood from at least four other people on his gear: one from his knife, two from a single arrowhead in his quiver, and a fourth from his coat.[86][87] Interpretations of these findings are that Ötzi killed two people with the same arrow and was able to retrieve it on both occasions, and the blood on his coat was from a wounded comrade he may have carried over his back.[83] Ötzi's posture in death (frozen body, face down, left arm bent across the chest) could support a hypothesis that, before death occurred and rigor mortis set in, the Iceman was turned onto his belly in the effort to remove the arrow shaft.[88] The Cambridge World History of Violence (2020) cited Ötzi as evidence of prehistoric warfare.[89]

Alternative theory of death location

Most research has assumed that Ötzi died roughly on the spot where he was found.[90] In 2010, it was proposed that Ötzi died at a much lower altitude and was buried higher in the mountains, as posited by archaeologist Alessandro Vanzetti of the Sapienza University of Rome and his colleagues.[90] According to their study of the items found near Ötzi and their locations, the iceman may have been placed above what has been interpreted as a stone burial mound, but his body subsequently moved with each thaw cycle that created a flowing watery mixture driven by gravity before being re-frozen.[91] While archaeobotanist Klaus Oeggl of the University of Innsbruck agrees that the natural process described probably caused the body to move from the ridge that includes the stone formation, he pointed out that the paper provided no compelling evidence to demonstrate that the scattered stones constituted a burial platform.[91] Moreover, biological anthropologist Albert Zink argues that the iceman's bones display no dislocations that would have resulted from a downhill slide and that the intact blood clots in his arrow wound would show damage if the body had been moved up the mountain.[91] In either case, the burial theory does not contradict the likelihood of a violent cause of death.

Legal dispute

The Ötzi memorial near Tisenjoch. Ötzi was found ca. 70 m NE of here, a place indicated with a red mark (not in this photo). The mountain in the background is the Fineilspitze.

Italian law entitled the Simons to a finders' fee from the South Tyrolean provincial government of 25% of the value of Ötzi. In 1994 the authorities offered a "symbolic" reward of lire 10 million (€5,200), which the Simons declined.[92] In 2003, the Simons filed a lawsuit which asked a court in Bolzano to recognize their role in Ötzi's discovery and declare them his "official discoverers". The court decided in the Simons' favor in November 2003, and at the end of December that year the Simons announced that they were seeking US$300,000 as their fee. The provincial government decided to appeal.[93]

In addition, two people came forward, each with a claim of being part of the same mountaineering party that had come across Ötzi and of discovering the body first:

  • Magdalena Mohar Jarc, a retired Slovenian climber, who alleged that she discovered the corpse first after falling into a crevice, and, shortly after returning to a mountain hut, asked Helmut Simon to take photographs of Ötzi. She cited Reinhold Messner, who was also present in the mountain hut, as the witness to this.[94]
  • Sandra Nemeth, from Switzerland, who contended that she had found the corpse before Helmut and Erika Simon and spat on it to make sure that her DNA would be found there later. She asked for a DNA test on the remains, but experts believed that there was little chance of finding any trace.[95]

In 2005, the rival claims were heard by a Bolzano court. The legal case angered Mrs. Simon, who alleged that neither woman was present on the mountain that day.[95] In 2005, Mrs. Simon's lawyer said: "Mrs. Simon is very upset by all this and by the fact that these two new claimants have decided to appear 14 years after Ötzi was found."[95] In 2008, however, Jarc stated for a Slovene newspaper that she had written twice to the Bolzano court in regard to her claim but received no reply whatsoever.[94]

In 2004, Helmut Simon died. Two years later, in June 2006, an appeals court affirmed that the Simons had indeed discovered the Iceman and were therefore entitled to a finder's fee. It also ruled that the provincial government had to pay the Simons' legal costs. After this ruling, Mrs. Erika Simon reduced her claim to €150,000. The provincial government's response was that the expenses it had incurred to establish a museum and the costs of preserving the Iceman should be considered in determining the finder's fee. It insisted it would pay no more than €50,000. In September 2006, the authorities appealed the case to Italy's highest court, the

Court of Cassation.[93]

On 29 September 2008, it was announced that the provincial government and Mrs. Simon had reached a settlement of the dispute, under which she would receive €150,000 in recognition of Ötzi's discovery by her and her late husband and the tourist income that it attracts.[92][96]

See also

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  93. ^ a b James M. Deem (September 2008), Ötzi: Iceman of the Alps: Finder's fee lawsuits, Mummy Tombs, archived from the original on 2 November 2008, retrieved 1 October 2008
  94. ^ a b "Magdaleni ne bodo plačali za Ötzija" [Magdalena Won't Get Paid for Ötzi]. Slovenske novice (in Slovenian). 9 October 2008. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015.
  95. ^ a b c Nick Pisa (22 October 2005), "Cold case comes to court – After 5,300 years", The Daily Telegraph, archived from the original on 6 December 2008
  96. ^ Nick Squires (29 September 2008), "Oetzi The Iceman's discoverers finally compensated: A bitter dispute over the payment of a finder's fee for two hikers who discovered the world famous Oetzi The Iceman mummy has finally been settled", The Daily Telegraph, archived from the original on 2 October 2008

Further reading

Articles

Books

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ötzi.
The Wikibook Planet Earth has a page on the topic of: A reflection on sustainability comparing Ötzi's and Simon's deaths, by Benjamin Burger.
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