Buddhist ethics
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Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on the
In contrast to the English word "morality" (i.e., obedience, a sense of obligation, and external constraint), Sīla is an ethical compass within oneself and one's relationships. It is an intentional ethical behavior, according to one's commitment to the path of liberation.
Sīla is one of the
Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. Most scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of
Foundations
The universal source for Buddhist ethics are the
The Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths are at the foundation of Buddhist ethics:
- nirodha (cessation, ending) of this dukkha can be attained by eliminating all "craving, desire, and attachment";[13][14]
The Four Noble Truths express the central problem motivating Buddhist ethics—the need for liberation from suffering. According to the first Noble Truth, worldly existence is fraught with suffering (dukkha). Dukkha is seen to arise from craving, and putting an end to craving can lead to liberation (
Karma and rebirth
The principle governing suffering and liberation from it is the law of
In the Buddhist conception, Karma can refer to a certain type of moral action which has moral consequences on the actor.
The root of one's intention is what conditions an action to be good or bad. There are three good roots (non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding) and
Precepts
The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is
- I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life;
- I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given;
- I undertake the training rule to abstain from sexual misconduct;
- I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech;
- I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants, which are the basis for heedlessness.
Buddhists often take the precepts in formal ceremonies with members of the monastic Sangha, though they can also be undertaken as private personal commitments.
Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of
The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment,[41] suicide, abortion[42][43] and euthanasia.[44] The second precept prohibits theft. The third precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment. The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip.[45] The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means.[30][46] Early Buddhist texts nearly always condemn alcohol,[47] and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts.[48][49] In practice however, many lay Buddhists do not adhere to this precept and drinking is common in many Buddhist majority countries.[50][51] Buddhist attitudes toward smoking differ per time and region, but are generally permissive.[52][53] In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts.[54][55] As for the West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations.[56]
There is also a more strict set of precepts called the eight precepts which are taken at specific religious days or religious retreats. The eight precepts encourage further discipline and are modeled on the monastic code. In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the Eight Precepts are:[26]
- "I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times." (e.g. no solid foods after noon, and not until dawn the following day)
- "I accept the training rule (a) to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and shows, and (b) from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions."
- "I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats."
In
Ten wholesome actions
Another common formulation of Buddhist ethical action in the early Buddhist texts is the "path of the ten good actions" or "ten skilled karma paths" (Pali: dasa-kusala-kammapatha, Sanskrit: daśa-kuśala-karmapatha) which are "in accordance with
These are divided into three bodily actions (kaya kamma), four verbal actions (vaci kamma) and three mental actions (mano kamma) all of which are said to cause "unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow".
Bodily actions:
- "Someone gives up killing living creatures", they "renounce the rod and the sword", "They're scrupulous and kind, living full of compassion for all living beings."
- "They give up stealing. They don't, with the intention to commit theft, take the wealth or belongings of others from village or wilderness."
- "They give up sexual misconduct. They don't have sexual relations with women who have their mother, father, both mother and father, brother, sister, relatives, or clan as guardian. They don't have sexual relations with a woman who is protected on principle, or who has a husband, or whose violation is punishable by law, or even one who has been garlanded as a token of betrothal."
Verbal actions:
- "A certain person gives up lying. They're summoned to a council, an assembly, a family meeting, a guild, or to the royal court, and asked to bear witness: 'Please, mister, say what you know.' Not knowing, they say 'I don't know.' Knowing, they say 'I know.' Not seeing, they say 'I don't see.' And seeing, they say 'I see.' So they don't deliberately lie for the sake of themselves or another, or for some trivial worldly reason."
- "They give up divisive speech. They don't repeat in one place what they heard in another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, they reconcile those who are divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote harmony."
- "They give up harsh speech. They speak in a way that's mellow, pleasing to the ear, lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people."
- "They give up talking nonsense. Their words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. They say things at the right time which are valuable, reasonable, succinct, and beneficial."
Mental actions:
- "It's when someone is content. They don't covet the wealth and belongings of others: 'Oh, if only their belongings were mine!' They have a kind heart and loving intentions: 'May these sentient beings live free of enmity and ill will, untroubled and happy!'"
- "It's when someone is content, and lives with their heart full of contentment. They are loving, and live with their heart full of love. They're kind, and live with their heart full of kindness."
- "It's when someone has such a view: 'There is meaning in giving, sacrifice, and offerings. There are fruits and results of good and bad deeds. There is an afterlife. There are duties to mother and father. There are beings reborn spontaneously. And there are ascetics and brahmins who are well attained and practiced, and who describe the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.'"
These ten paths are also commonly taught in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism as foundational ethical teachings.[65]
Bases of meritorious actions
Yet another common ethical list in the Pali tradition is the "ten bases of meritorious action" (Dasa Puñña-kiriya Vatthu).
...good conduct by way of body, speech, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors.
Truth, principle, self-control, and restraint; giving, harmlessness, delighting in non-violence...
giving and helping others, kindly speech, and equal treatment, such action and conduct as brought people together...
The later expanded listing of ten bases is as follows:[66][67][68][69]
- Giving or charity (dāna), This is widely done by giving "the four requisites" to monks; food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. However giving to the needy is also a part of this.
- Morality (sīla), Keeping the five precepts, generally non-harming.
- Mental cultivation (bhāvanā).
- Paying due respect to those who are worthy of it (apacāyana), showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Usually done by placing the hands together in Añjali Mudrā, and sometimes bowing.
- Helping others perform good deeds (veyyāvacca), looking after others.
- Sharing of merit after doing some good deed (anumodana)
- Rejoicing in the merits of others (pattanumodana), this is common in communal activities.
- Teaching the Dhamma(dhammadesana), the gift of Dhamma is seen as the highest gift.
- Listening to the Dhamma (dhammassavana)
- Straightening one's own views (ditthujukamma)
Key values and virtues
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Following the precepts is not the only dimension of Buddhist morality, there are also several important virtues, motivations and habits which are widely promoted by Buddhist texts and traditions. At the core of these virtues are the three roots of non-attachment (araga), benevolence (advesa), and understanding (amoha).
One list of virtues which is widely promoted in Buddhism are the
The Four divine abidings (
An important quality which supports right action is Heedfulness (
The Buddha promoted 'self-respect' (
Giving (
An important value in Buddhist ethics is non-harming or non-violence (ahimsa) to all living creatures from the lowest insect to humans which is associated with the first precept of not killing. The Buddhist practice of this does not extend to the extremes exhibited by Jainism (in Buddhism, unintentional killing is not karmically bad), but from both the Buddhist and Jain perspectives, non-violence suggests an intimate involvement with, and relationship to, all living things.[73]
The Buddha also emphasized that 'good friendship (
In
Issues
Killing
The first precept is the abstaining from the taking of life, and the Buddha clearly stated that the taking of human or animal life would lead to negative karmic consequences and was non conductive to liberation. Right livelihood includes not trading in weapons or in hunting and butchering animals. Various suttas state that one should always have a mind filled with compassion and loving kindness for all beings, this is to be extended to hurtful, evil people as in the case of
In Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of skillful means (
"If I take the life of this sentient being, I myself may be reborn as one of the creatures of hell. Better that I be reborn a creature of hell than that this living being, having committed a deed of immediate retribution, should go straight to hell."[77]
If then, the intention is purely to protect others from evil, the act of killing is sometimes seen as meritorious.
War
The Buddhist analysis of conflict begins with the '
The Buddha promoted
.While
Another example is that of Buddhist
code.During
Abortion
There is no single
One of the reasons this is seen as an evil act is because a human rebirth is seen as a precious and unique opportunity to do good deeds and attain liberation. The
Those practicing in
While abortion is problematic in Buddhism, contraception is generally a non-issue.
Suicide and euthanasia
Buddhism understands life as being pervaded by
In
Buddhism sees the experience of dying as a very sensitive moment in one's spiritual life, because the quality of one's mind at the time of death is believed to condition one's future rebirth.[97] The Buddhist ideal is to die in a calm but conscious state, while learning to let go. Dying consciously, without negative thoughts but rather joyously with good thoughts in mind is seen as a good transition into the next life. Chanting and reciting Buddhist texts is a common practice; in Tibet the Bardo Thodol is used to guide the dying to a good rebirth.[97]
Traditional Buddhism would hold
However, there are exceptions to the injunction against suicide. Several Pali suttas contain stories where self-euthanizing is not seen as unethical by the Buddha, showing that the issue is more complex. These exceptions, such as the story of the monk Channa and that of the monk Vakkali, typically deal with advanced Buddhist practitioners. In these exceptional cases, both Channa and Vakkali are both said to be enlightened
In East-Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of
Capital punishment
Buddhism places great emphasis on the sanctity of life and hence in theory forbids the death penalty. However, capital punishment has been used in most historically Buddhist states. The first of the
- "Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill".
Chapter 26, the final chapter of the Dhammapada, states "Him I call a
Animals and the environment
Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as having any kind of God given dominion over them as
We classify other animals and living beings as nature, acting as if we ourselves are not part of it. Then we pose the question 'How should we deal with Nature?' We should deal with nature the way we should deal with ourselves! We should not harm ourselves; we should not harm nature...Human beings and nature are inseparable.[107]
Early Buddhist monastics spent a lot of time in the forests, which was seen as an excellent place for meditation and this tradition continues to be practiced by the monks of the Thai Forest Tradition.
Vegetarianism
There is a divergence of views within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with some schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat. Many
The first precept of Buddhism focuses mainly on direct participation in the destruction of life. This is one reason that the
The Buddhist king Ashoka promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number of animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing 'no slaughter days' during the year. He gave up hunting trips, banned the killing of specific animals and decreased the use of meat in the royal household. Ashoka even banned the killing of some vermin or pests. His example was followed by later Sri Lankan kings.[109] One of Ashoka's rock edicts states:
Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice...Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.[110]
Many Buddhists, especially in East Asia, believe that Buddhism advocates or promotes
In the
Meat should not be eaten under three circumstances: when it is seen or heard or suspected (that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); these,
Jivaka, are the three circumstances in which meat should not be eaten, Jivaka! I declare there are three circumstances in which meat can be eaten: when it is not seen or heard or suspected (that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); Jivaka, I say these are the three circumstances in which meat can be eaten.— Jivaka Sutta
The Buddha held that because the food is given by a donor with good intentions, a monk should accept this as long as it is pure in these three respects. To refuse the offering would deprive the donor of the positive karma that giving provides. Moreover, it would create a certain conceit in the monks who would now pick and choose what food to eat. The Buddha did state however that the donor does generate bad karma for himself by killing an animal. In Theravada Buddhist countries, most people do eat meat, however.
While there is no mention of Buddha endorsing or repudiating vegetarianism in surviving portions of
Environment
Forests and jungles represented the ideal dwelling place for early Buddhists, and many texts praise the forest life as being helpful to meditation. Monks are not allowed to cut down trees as per the Vinaya, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as karmically fruitful. Because of this, Buddhist monasteries are often small nature preserves within the modernizing states in East Asia. The species Ficus religiosa is seen as auspicious, because it is the same kind of tree that the Buddha gained enlightenment under.
In
In pre-modern times, environmental issues were not widely discussed, though Ashoka banned the burning of forests and promoted the planting of trees in his edicts. Bhikkhu Bodhi, an American Theravada monk, has been outspoken about the issue of environmental crisis. Bodhi holds that the root of the current ecological crisis is the belief that increased production and consumption to satisfy our material and sensual desires leads to well-being. The subjugation of nature is directly opposed to the Buddhist view of non-harming and dwelling in nature. Buddhist activists such as Ajahn Pongsak in Thailand and the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement have worked for reforestation and environmental protection. The Dalai Lama also professes the close relationship of human beings and nature, saying that since humans come from nature, there is no point in going against it. He advocates that a clean environment should be considered a basic human right and that it is our responsibility as humans to ensure that we do all we can to pass on a healthy world to those who come after us.[117]
Gender issues
In pre-Buddhist Indian religion, women were seen as inferior and subservient to men. Buddha's teachings tended to promote gender equality as the Buddha held that women had the same spiritual capacities as men did. According to
The
- "What does womanhood matter at all
- When the mind is concentrated well,
- When knowledge flows on steadily
- As one sees correctly into Dhamma.
- One to whom it might occur,
- 'I'm a woman' or 'I'm a man'
- Or 'I'm anything at all' —
- Is fit for Mara to address."[123]
In
In
The attitude of Buddhists towards gender has been varied throughout history as it has been influenced by each particular culture and belief system such as Confucianism (which sees women as subservient) and Hinduism. The Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) for example, seems to have been influenced by his Brahmin background in stating that rebirth as a male is higher than rebirth as a female.[127] Some Mahayana sutras such as the 'Sutra on Changing the Female Sex' and the 'Questions of the Daughter Pure Faith' also echo this idea. For various historical and cultural reasons such as wars and invasions, the orders of ordained Buddhist nuns disappeared or was never introduced in Southeast Asia and Tibet, though they slowly started being reintroduced by nuns such as Ayya Khema, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, Tenzin Palmo and Thubten Chodron. Until very recently, China, Taiwan and Korea were the only places where fully ordained bhiksuni lineages still existed. An international conference of Buddhist nuns was held in February 1987 at Bodh Gaya and saw the formation of 'Sakyadhita' (Daughters of the Buddha) the International Association of Buddhist Women which focuses on helping Buddhist nuns throughout the world.[128]
Relationships
The Buddha placed much importance on the cultivation of good will and compassion towards one's parents, spouse, friends and all other beings. Buddhism strongly values harmony in the family and community. Keeping the five precepts and having a generous attitude (Dana) is seen as the foundation for this harmony. An important text, seen as the lay people's Vinaya (code of conduct) is the
Parents for example, are to be respected and supported with the understanding that they are to have provided care and affection to oneself. In marriage, the sutta states that a householder should treat his wife by "being courteous to her, by not despising her, by being faithful to her, by handing over authority to her, by providing her with adornments." while in return the wife "performs her duties well, she is hospitable to relations and attendants, she is faithful, she protects what he brings, she is skilled and industrious in discharging her duties."[129] The Buddha also stated that a wife and husband are to be each other's best friend (parama sakha). While monogamy is the predominant model for marriage, Buddhist societies have also practiced and accepted polygamy and polyandry.[130] Buddhism sees marriage not as sacred but as a secular partnership and hence has no issue with divorce.
Sexuality
The Third (or sometimes Fourth) of the
Sexual orientation
Among the Buddhist traditions there is a vast diversity of opinion about
According to the
Some later traditions, like
While both men and women can be ordained,
Economic ethics
Buddha's teachings to laypeople included advice on how to make their living and how to use their wealth. The Buddha considered the creation of wealth to be praiseworthy, so long as it was done morally,[138] in accordance with right livelihood, one of the elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, and which refers to making one's living without killing, being complicit in the suffering of other beings (by selling weapons, poison, alcohol or flesh) or through lying, stealing or deceit.[139]
The Sigalovada Sutta states that a master should look after servants and employees by: "(1) by assigning them work according to their ability, (2) by supplying them with food and with wages, (3) by tending them in sickness, (4) by sharing with them any delicacies, (5) by granting them leave at times" (
In the Adiya Sutta the Buddha also outlined several ways in which people could put their 'righteously gained' wealth to use:[140]
- Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to themselves, their mother & father, their children, spouse, slaves, servants, & assistants.
- Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to their friends and associates.
- Warding off calamities coming from fire, flood, kings, thieves, or hateful heirs, and keeps himself safe.
- Performs five oblations/offerings: to relatives, guests, the dead, kings, & devas.
- Giving of offerings to priests (brahmins) and contemplatives (monks).
The Buddha placed much emphasis on the virtue of giving and sharing, and hence the practice of donating and charity are central to Buddhist economic ethics. Even the poor are encouraged to share, because this brings about greater spiritual wealth: "If beings knew, as I know, the results of giving & sharing, they would not eat without having given, nor would the stain of selfishness overcome their minds. Even if it were their last bite, their last mouthful, they would not eat without having shared, if there were someone to receive their gift."[141] The modern growth of Engaged Buddhism has seen an emphasis on social work and charity. Buddhist aid and activist organizations include Buddhist Global Relief, Lotus Outreach, Buddhist Peace Fellowship, Piyarra Kutta, International Network of Engaged Buddhists, The Tzu Chi Foundation, Nonviolent Peaceforce, and Zen Peacemakers.
Buddhist texts promote the building of public works which benefit the community and stories of Buddhist Kings like
While modern economics seeks to satisfy human desires, Buddhism seeks to reduce our desires and hence Buddhist economics would tend to promote a sense of
While Buddhism encourages wealth gained ethically,[138] it sees greed and craving for riches as negative, and praises contentment as 'the greatest wealth'. Poverty and debt are seen as causes of suffering, immorality, and social unrest if they prevent one from having basic necessities and peace of mind. For laypeople, Buddhism promotes the middle way between a life of poverty and a materialistic or consumerist life in which one is always seeking to enrich oneself and to buy more things.[148] For Buddhist laypersons then, to be Buddhist does not mean to reject all material things, but, according to Sizemore and Swearer: "it specifies an attitude to be cultivated and expressed in whatever material condition one finds oneself. To be non-attached is to possess and use material things but not to be possessed or used by them. Therefore, the idea of non-attachment applies all across Buddhist society, to laymen and monk alike."[149]
See also
- Ahimsa
- Buddhism and violence
- Buddhist monasticism
- Culture of Buddhism
- Eight precepts
- Five precepts
- Noble Eightfold Path
- Forgiveness § Buddhism
- Sacca-kiriya
- Three Refuges
- Threefold Training
- Pali
- View (Buddhism)
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- AN 10.176. Retrieved 2011-03-14.)
Abandoning sensual misconduct, he abstains from sensual misconduct. He does not get sexually involved with those who are protected by their mothers, their fathers, their brothers, their sisters, their relatives, or their Dhamma; those with husbands, those who entail punishments, or even those crowned with flowers by another man
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: others (link - ^ 優婆塞經 Archived 2017-02-18 at the Wayback Machine(Upāsaka Sutra from Madhyam āgama):復次,舍梨子!白衣聖弟子離邪婬、斷邪婬,彼或有父所護,或母所護,或父母所護,或兄弟所護,或姉妹所護,或婦父母所護,或親親所護,或同姓所護,或為他婦女,有鞭罰恐怖,及有名雇債至華鬘親,不犯如是女。彼於邪淫淨除其心,白衣聖弟子善護行,此第三法
- ^ * Ajahn Punnadhammo. "Same Sex Marriage".
The lay man is told to abstain from sex with "unsuitable partners" defined as girls under age, women betrothed or married and women who have taken vows of religious celibacy. This is clear, sound advice and seems to suggest that sexual misconduct is that which would disrupt existing family or love relationships. This is consonant with the general Buddhist principle that that which causes suffering for oneself or others is unethical behaviour. ("Unskillful behaviour" would be closer to the original.) There is no good reason to assume that homosexual relations which do not violate this principle should be treated differently.
- Somdet Phra Buddhaghosacariya (1993). Uposatha Sila The Eight-Precept Observance.There are four factors of the third precept (kamesu micchacara)
- agamaniya vatthu — that which should not be visited (the 20 groups of women).
- asmim sevana-cittam — the intention to have intercourse with anyone included in the above-mentioned groups.
- sevanap-payogo — the effort at sexual intercourse.
- maggena maggappatipatti — sexual contact through that adhivasanam effort.
- Bhikkhu Bodhi (1981). Going for Refuge & Taking the Precepts (The Five Precepts). Buddhist Publication Society.
- Sujato, Ajahn (2012-03-20). "Why Buddhists Should Support Marriage Equality".
- ^ Peter Harvey An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics Cambridge University Press 2000, page 423.
- ^ Peter Harvey An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics Cambridge University Press 2000, page 413.
- ^ ISBN 0521556406
- ISBN 0521556406
- ^ AN 5.41, Adiya Sutta: Benefits to be Obtained (from Wealth) translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "Adiya Sutta: Benefits to be Obtained (from Wealth)". Archived from the original on 2016-04-20. Retrieved 2015-12-02.
- ^ Itivuttaka: The Group of Ones translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "Itivuttaka: The Group of Ones". Archived from the original on 2016-05-18. Retrieved 2015-12-02.
- ^ Peter Harvey An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics Cambridge University Press 2000, page 198.
- ^ Peter Harvey An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics Cambridge University Press 2000, page 191.
- ^ Thurman, Robert. Social and Cultural rights in Buddhism, "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-10-20. Retrieved 2015-12-02.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ Charles B. Jones, Buddhism and Marxism in Taiwan: Lin Qiuwu's Religious Socialism and Its Legacy in Modern Times, "Buddhism and Marxism in Taiwan: Lin Qiuwu's Religious Socialism and Its Legacy in Modern Times". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-12-02.
- ^ Payutto, Buddhist Economics A Middle Way for the Market Place, chapter three. "Buddhist Economics... Part 3". Archived from the original on 2016-10-24. Retrieved 2015-12-02.
- ^ Peter Harvey An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics Cambridge University Press 2000, page 220.
- ^ Peter Harvey An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics Cambridge University Press 2000, page 195.
- ^ Russell F. Sizemore and Donald K. Swearer, "Introduction" to Sizemore and Swearer, eds., Ethics, Wealth and Salvation: A Study in Buddhist Social Ethics (Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina, 1990), p. 2.
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External links
- Everyman's Ethics: Four discourses by the Buddha by Narada Thera(BPS Wheel Publication No. 14)
- Ethics in Buddhist Perspective by K.N. Jayatilleke(BPS Wheel Publication No. 175 / 176)
- Nourishing the Roots and Other Essays on Buddhist Ethics by Bhikkhu Bodhi (BPS Wheel Publication No. 259 / 260)
- Sīla and Samādhi, Surendranath Dasgupta, 1940
- Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism
- Sila as explained in the Buddhist Encyclopedia.