Buddhist ethics

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(Redirected from
Śīla
)
The Buddhist king Ashoka built pillars throughout the Indian subcontinent inscribed with edicts promoting Buddhist moral virtues and precepts.

Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on the

Pāli). Śīla is one of three sections of the Noble Eightfold Path. It is a code of conduct that embraces a commitment to harmony and self-restraint, primarily motivated by nonviolence or freedom from causing harm. It has been variously described as virtue,[2] moral discipline[3] and precept
.

In contrast to the English word "morality" (i.e., obedience, a sense of obligation, and external constraint), Sīla is an ethical compass within oneself and one's relationships. It is an intentional ethical behavior, according to one's commitment to the path of liberation.

Sīla is one of the

pāramitā.[4] Sīla is also wholehearted commitment to what is wholesome. Two aspects of sīla are essential to the training: right "performance" (caritta), and right "avoidance" (varitta). Honoring the precepts of sīla is considered a "great gift" (mahadana) to others because it creates an atmosphere of trust, respect, and security. It means the practitioner poses no threat to another person's life, property, family, rights, or well-being.[5]

Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. Most scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of

Buddhist scriptures and the use of anthropological evidence from traditional Buddhist societies to justify claims about the nature of Buddhist ethics.[6]

Foundations

The universal source for Buddhist ethics are the

right view
, also referred to as right intention, was a necessary prerequisite for right conduct.

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are at the foundation of Buddhist ethics:

  • dukkha (suffering, incapable of satisfying, painful) is an innate characteristic of existence with each rebirth;[7][8][9]
  • samudaya (origin, cause) of this dukkha is the "craving, desire or attachment";[10][11][12]
  • nirodha (cessation, ending) of this dukkha can be attained by eliminating all "craving, desire, and attachment";[13][14]
  • magga (path, Noble Eightfold Path) is the means to end this dukkha.[15][16][17]

The Four Noble Truths express the central problem motivating Buddhist ethics—the need for liberation from suffering. According to the first Noble Truth, worldly existence is fraught with suffering (dukkha). Dukkha is seen to arise from craving, and putting an end to craving can lead to liberation (

bodhisattvas
are believed to work tirelessly for the liberation of all.

Karma and rebirth

The bhavacakra (wheel of life) shows the realms of karmic rebirth, at its hub are the three poisons of greed, hatred and delusion.

The principle governing suffering and liberation from it is the law of

MN 117, Maha-cattarisaka Sutta). Although the doctrine of rebirth has been avowed by many Buddhists, it is rejected by many East Asian Buddhists, and some scholars regard it as inessential to Buddhist ethics.[20]

In the Buddhist conception, Karma can refer to a certain type of moral action which has moral consequences on the actor.

AN 6.63). Therefore, accidentally hurting someone is not bad Karma, but having hurtful thoughts is. Buddhist ethics sees these patterns of motives and actions as conditioning future actions and circumstances – the fruit (Phala) of one's present actions, including the condition and place of the actor's future life circumstances (though these can also be influenced by other random factors).[21] One's past actions are said to mold one's consciousness and to leave seeds (Bīja
) which later ripen in the next life. The goal of Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle, though one can also work for rebirth in a better condition through good deeds.

The root of one's intention is what conditions an action to be good or bad. There are three good roots (non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding) and

three negative roots (greed, hatred and delusion). Actions which produce good outcomes are termed "merit" (puñña – fruitful, auspicious) and obtaining merit (good karma) is an important goal of lay Buddhist practice. The early Buddhist texts mention three 'bases for effecting karmic fruitfulness' (puñña-kiriya-vatthus): giving (dana), moral virtue (sila) and meditation (bhāvanā).[22]
One's state of mind while performing good actions is seen as more important than the action itself. The Buddhist Sangha is seen as the most meritorious "field of merit". Negative actions accumulate bad karmic results, though one's regret and attempts to make up for it can ameliorate these results.

Precepts

Zen Buddhist initiation ceremony of Jukai, initiates take up the Bodhisattva Precepts
.

The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is

The Five Precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. The precepts or "five moral virtues" (pañca-silani) are not commands but a set of voluntary commitments or guidelines,[23] to help one live a life in which one is happy, without worries, and able to meditate well. The precepts are supposed to prevent suffering and to weaken the effects of greed, hatred and delusion. They were the basic moral instructions which the Buddha gave to laypeople and monks alike. Breaking one's sīla as pertains to sexual conduct introduces harmfulness towards one's practice or the practice of another person if it involves uncommitted relationship.[24] When one "goes for refuge" to the Buddha's teachings one formally takes the five precepts,[25] which are:[26]

  1. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life;
  2. I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given;
  3. I undertake the training rule to abstain from sexual misconduct;
  4. I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech;
  5. I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants, which are the basis for heedlessness.

Buddhists often take the precepts in formal ceremonies with members of the monastic Sangha, though they can also be undertaken as private personal commitments.

deontological[31] and virtue approaches to ethics.[32] They have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature,[33][34] and some scholars argue they can complement the concept of human rights.[35][36]

Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of

form the foundation of the precepts.

The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment,[41] suicide, abortion[42][43] and euthanasia.[44] The second precept prohibits theft. The third precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment. The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip.[45] The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means.[30][46] Early Buddhist texts nearly always condemn alcohol,[47] and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts.[48][49] In practice however, many lay Buddhists do not adhere to this precept and drinking is common in many Buddhist majority countries.[50][51] Buddhist attitudes toward smoking differ per time and region, but are generally permissive.[52][53] In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts.[54][55] As for the West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations.[56]

There is also a more strict set of precepts called the eight precepts which are taken at specific religious days or religious retreats. The eight precepts encourage further discipline and are modeled on the monastic code. In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the Eight Precepts are:[26]

  1. "I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times." (e.g. no solid foods after noon, and not until dawn the following day)
  2. "I accept the training rule (a) to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and shows, and (b) from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions."
  3. "I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats."

scriptures on vinaya
(vinayapiṭaka) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to the vinaya.

In

Brahmajala Sutra include the Five precepts with some other additions such as the precept against slandering the Buddha's teachings. These exist above and beyond the existing monastic code, or lay follower precepts.[57] The Brahmajala Sutra also includes a list of 48 minor precepts which prohibit the eating of meat, storing of weapons, teaching for the sake of profit, abandoning Mahayana teachings and teaching non Mahayana Dharma. These precepts have no parallel in Theravāda
Buddhism.

Ten wholesome actions

Another common formulation of Buddhist ethical action in the early Buddhist texts is the "path of the ten good actions" or "ten skilled karma paths" (Pali: dasa-kusala-kammapatha, Sanskrit: daśa-kuśala-karmapatha) which are "in accordance with

These are divided into three bodily actions (kaya kamma), four verbal actions (vaci kamma) and three mental actions (mano kamma) all of which are said to cause "unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow".

Majjhima Nikaya MN 41 (Sāleyyaka Sutta), and MN 114:[63][64]

Bodily actions:

  1. "Someone gives up killing living creatures", they "renounce the rod and the sword", "They're scrupulous and kind, living full of compassion for all living beings."
  2. "They give up stealing. They don't, with the intention to commit theft, take the wealth or belongings of others from village or wilderness."
  3. "They give up sexual misconduct. They don't have sexual relations with women who have their mother, father, both mother and father, brother, sister, relatives, or clan as guardian. They don't have sexual relations with a woman who is protected on principle, or who has a husband, or whose violation is punishable by law, or even one who has been garlanded as a token of betrothal."

Verbal actions:

  1. "A certain person gives up lying. They're summoned to a council, an assembly, a family meeting, a guild, or to the royal court, and asked to bear witness: 'Please, mister, say what you know.' Not knowing, they say 'I don't know.' Knowing, they say 'I know.' Not seeing, they say 'I don't see.' And seeing, they say 'I see.' So they don't deliberately lie for the sake of themselves or another, or for some trivial worldly reason."
  2. "They give up divisive speech. They don't repeat in one place what they heard in another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, they reconcile those who are divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote harmony."
  3. "They give up harsh speech. They speak in a way that's mellow, pleasing to the ear, lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people."
  4. "They give up talking nonsense. Their words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. They say things at the right time which are valuable, reasonable, succinct, and beneficial."

Mental actions:

  1. "It's when someone is content. They don't covet the wealth and belongings of others: 'Oh, if only their belongings were mine!' They have a kind heart and loving intentions: 'May these sentient beings live free of enmity and ill will, untroubled and happy!'"
  2. "It's when someone is content, and lives with their heart full of contentment. They are loving, and live with their heart full of love. They're kind, and live with their heart full of kindness."
  3. "It's when someone has such a view: 'There is meaning in giving, sacrifice, and offerings. There are fruits and results of good and bad deeds. There is an afterlife. There are duties to mother and father. There are beings reborn spontaneously. And there are ascetics and brahmins who are well attained and practiced, and who describe the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.'"

These ten paths are also commonly taught in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism as foundational ethical teachings.[65]

Bases of meritorious actions

Yet another common ethical list in the Pali tradition is the "ten bases of meritorious action" (Dasa Puñña-kiriya Vatthu).

Digha Nikaya 30 also mentions several related meritorious behaviors.[68] D.N. 30 mentions various exemplary meritorious actions done by the Buddha such as:[71]

...good conduct by way of body, speech, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors.

Truth, principle, self-control, and restraint; giving, harmlessness, delighting in non-violence...

giving and helping others, kindly speech, and equal treatment, such action and conduct as brought people together...

The later expanded listing of ten bases is as follows:[66][67][68][69]

  • Giving or charity (dāna), This is widely done by giving "the four requisites" to monks; food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. However giving to the needy is also a part of this.
  • Morality (sīla), Keeping the five precepts, generally non-harming.
  • Mental cultivation (bhāvanā).
  • Paying due respect to those who are worthy of it (apacāyana), showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Usually done by placing the hands together in Añjali Mudrā, and sometimes bowing.
  • Helping others perform good deeds (veyyāvacca), looking after others.
  • Sharing of merit after doing some good deed (anumodana)
  • Rejoicing in the merits of others (pattanumodana), this is common in communal activities.
  • Teaching the
    Dhamma
    (dhammadesana), the gift of Dhamma is seen as the highest gift.
  • Listening to the Dhamma (dhammassavana)
  • Straightening one's own views (ditthujukamma)

Key values and virtues

Giving (Dana) is an important Buddhist virtue. The community of monastics is seen as the most meritorious field of karmic fruitfulness.

Following the precepts is not the only dimension of Buddhist morality, there are also several important virtues, motivations and habits which are widely promoted by Buddhist texts and traditions. At the core of these virtues are the three roots of non-attachment (araga), benevolence (advesa), and understanding (amoha).

One list of virtues which is widely promoted in Buddhism are the

Upekkhā
(equanimity).

The Four divine abidings (

equanimity
. Developing these virtues through meditation and right action promotes happiness, generates good merit and trains the mind for ethical action.

An important quality which supports right action is Heedfulness (

not-self
for example, allows one to become detached from selfish motivations and therefore allows one to be more altruistic. Having an understanding of the workings of the mind and of the law of karma also makes one less likely to perform an unethical action.

The Buddha promoted 'self-respect' (

Hri) and Regard for consequences (Apatrapya
), as important virtues. Self-respect is what caused a person to avoid actions which were seen to harm one's integrity and Ottappa is an awareness of the effects of one's actions and sense of embarrassment before others.

Giving (

dana and ethical conduct will themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower hells is unlikely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.[24]

An important value in Buddhist ethics is non-harming or non-violence (ahimsa) to all living creatures from the lowest insect to humans which is associated with the first precept of not killing. The Buddhist practice of this does not extend to the extremes exhibited by Jainism (in Buddhism, unintentional killing is not karmically bad), but from both the Buddhist and Jain perspectives, non-violence suggests an intimate involvement with, and relationship to, all living things.[73]

The Buddha also emphasized that 'good friendship (

SN
45.2). Developing strong friendships with good people on the spiritual path is seen as a key aspect of Buddhism and as a key way to support and grow in one's practice.

In

Mahayana Buddhism, another important foundation for moral action is the Bodhisattva ideal. Bodhisattvas are beings which have chosen to work towards the salvation of all living beings. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, this path of great compassion is promoted as being superior to that of the Arhat because the Bodhisattva is seen as working for the benefit of all beings.[74] A Bodhisattva is one who arouses a powerful emotion called Bodhicitta
(mind of enlightenment) which is a mind which is oriented towards the awakening of oneself and all beings.

Issues

Killing

warrior monk

The first precept is the abstaining from the taking of life, and the Buddha clearly stated that the taking of human or animal life would lead to negative karmic consequences and was non conductive to liberation. Right livelihood includes not trading in weapons or in hunting and butchering animals. Various suttas state that one should always have a mind filled with compassion and loving kindness for all beings, this is to be extended to hurtful, evil people as in the case of

warrior monks have historically performed acts of violence. In China, the Shaolin Monastery developed a martial arts
tradition to defend themselves from attack.

In Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of skillful means (

Bodhisattva-bhumi
, a key Mahayana text, states that if a Bodhisattva sees someone about to kill other Bodhisattvas, they may take it upon themselves to kill this murderer with the thought that:

"If I take the life of this sentient being, I myself may be reborn as one of the creatures of hell. Better that I be reborn a creature of hell than that this living being, having committed a deed of immediate retribution, should go straight to hell."[77]

If then, the intention is purely to protect others from evil, the act of killing is sometimes seen as meritorious.

War

Statue portrait of 5th Dalai Lama

The Buddhist analysis of conflict begins with the '

Three Poisons' of greed, hatred and delusion. Craving and attachment, the cause of suffering, is also the cause of conflict. Buddhist philosopher Shantideva states in his Siksasamuccaya: "Wherever conflict arises among living creatures, the sense of possession is the cause". Craving for material resources as well as grasping to political or religious views is seen as a major source of war. One's attachment to self-identity, and identification with tribe, nation state or religion is also another root of human conflict according to Buddhism.[78]

The Buddha promoted

.

While

Gushri Khan after the Oirat invasion of Tibet (1635–1642), praised the acts of the Khan and said that he was an emanation of the great Bodhisattva Vajrapani.[79] Under the fifth Dalai Lama and the powerful Gelug Regent Sonam Chophel (1595–1657), treasurer of the Ganden Palace, the Tibetan kingdom launched invasions of Bhutan (c. 1647, ending in failure) and Ladakh (c. 1679, which regained previously lost Tibetan territory) with Mongol aid.[81]

Another example is that of Buddhist

Zen Buddhism was influential among the samurai, and their Bushido
code.

During

Japanese Buddhists temples (except the Soka Gakkai) strongly supported Japanese imperialism and militarization.[83][84][85][86][87][88] The Japanese Pan-Buddhist Society (Myowa Kai) rejected criticism from Chinese Buddhists, stating that "We now have no choice but to exercise the benevolent forcefulness of 'killing one in order that many may live'" (issatsu tashō) and that the war was absolutely necessary to implement the dharma
in Asia.

Abortion

Zojo-ji temple in Tokyo

There is no single

Abhidharma-kosa states that "life is there from the moment of conception and should not be disturbed for it has the right to live".[91]

One of the reasons this is seen as an evil act is because a human rebirth is seen as a precious and unique opportunity to do good deeds and attain liberation. The

Jataka stories contain tales of women who perform abortions being reborn in a hell. In the case where the mother's life is in jeopardy, many traditional Buddhists agree that abortion is permissible. This is the only legally permissible reason for abortion in Sri Lanka, and is also a view accepted in the Tibetan tradition, as argued by Ganden Tri Rinpoche.[92] In the case of rape, however, most Buddhists argue that following an act of violence by allowing 'another kind of violence towards another individual' would not be ethical. Aborting a fetus that is malformed is also seen as immoral by most Buddhists.[93]

Those practicing in

yingling gongyang. In China abortion is also widely practiced, but in Tibet it is very rare. Thus while most Buddhists would agree that abortion is wrong, they are less likely to push for laws banning the practice. The Dalai Lama has said that abortion is "negative", but there are exceptions. He said, "I think abortion should be approved or disapproved according to each circumstance."[95]

While abortion is problematic in Buddhism, contraception is generally a non-issue.

Suicide and euthanasia

Thích Quảng Đức's self-immolation during the Buddhist crisis

Buddhism understands life as being pervaded by

Dukkha, as unsatisfactory and stressful. Ending one's life to escape present suffering is seen as futile because one will just be reborn again, and again. One of the three forms of craving is craving for annihilation (vibhava tanha), and this form of craving is the root of future suffering. Dying with an unwholesome and agitated state of mind is seen as leading to a bad rebirth, so suicide is seen as creating negative karma.[96] Ending one's life is also seen as throwing away the precious opportunity to generate positive karma. While suicide does not seem to be interpreted as a breaking of the first precept (not killing other beings) it is still seen as a grave and unwholesome action.[97]

In

Buddhism sees the experience of dying as a very sensitive moment in one's spiritual life, because the quality of one's mind at the time of death is believed to condition one's future rebirth.[97] The Buddhist ideal is to die in a calm but conscious state, while learning to let go. Dying consciously, without negative thoughts but rather joyously with good thoughts in mind is seen as a good transition into the next life. Chanting and reciting Buddhist texts is a common practice; in Tibet the Bardo Thodol is used to guide the dying to a good rebirth.[97]

Traditional Buddhism would hold

Abhidharma-kosa clearly states that the killing of one's sick and aged parents is an act of delusion. The act of killing someone in the process of death also ruins their chance to mindfully experience pain and learn to let go of the body, hence desire for euthanasia would be a form of aversion to physical pain and a craving for non-becoming. According to Kalu Rinpoche however, choosing to be removed from life support is karmically neutral.[101]
The choice not to receive medical treatment when one is terminally ill is then not seen as morally reprehensible, as long as it does not arise from a feeling of aversion to life. This would also apply to not resuscitating a terminal patient.

However, there are exceptions to the injunction against suicide. Several Pali suttas contain stories where self-euthanizing is not seen as unethical by the Buddha, showing that the issue is more complex. These exceptions, such as the story of the monk Channa and that of the monk Vakkali, typically deal with advanced Buddhist practitioners. In these exceptional cases, both Channa and Vakkali are both said to be enlightened

arhats and euthanized themselves in a calm and detached state of mind.[102]

In East-Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of

.

Capital punishment

Buddhism places great emphasis on the sanctity of life and hence in theory forbids the death penalty. However, capital punishment has been used in most historically Buddhist states. The first of the

Five Precepts (Panca-sila) is to abstain from destruction of life. Chapter 10 of the Dhammapada
states:

"Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill".

Chapter 26, the final chapter of the Dhammapada, states "Him I call a

Indochina) have practiced the death penalty. One exception is the abolition of the death penalty by the Emperor Saga of Japan
in 818. This lasted until 1165, although in private manors executions conducted as a form of retaliation continued to be performed.

Animals and the environment

Bodhi tree, attended by animals, Sanchi
vihara

Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as having any kind of God given dominion over them as

Thich Nhat Hanh
summarizes the Buddhist view of harmony with nature thus:

We classify other animals and living beings as nature, acting as if we ourselves are not part of it. Then we pose the question 'How should we deal with Nature?' We should deal with nature the way we should deal with ourselves! We should not harm ourselves; we should not harm nature...Human beings and nature are inseparable.[107]

Early Buddhist monastics spent a lot of time in the forests, which was seen as an excellent place for meditation and this tradition continues to be practiced by the monks of the Thai Forest Tradition.

Vegetarianism

There is a divergence of views within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with some schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat. Many

scriptural grounds.[108]

The first precept of Buddhism focuses mainly on direct participation in the destruction of life. This is one reason that the

Buddha made a distinction between killing animals and eating meat, and refused to introduce vegetarianism into monastic practice. While early Buddhist texts like the Pali Canon
frown upon hunting, butchering, fishing and 'trading in flesh' (meat or livestock) as professions, they do not ban the act of eating meat. Direct participation also includes ordering or encouraging someone to kill an animal for you.

The Buddhist king Ashoka promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number of animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing 'no slaughter days' during the year. He gave up hunting trips, banned the killing of specific animals and decreased the use of meat in the royal household. Ashoka even banned the killing of some vermin or pests. His example was followed by later Sri Lankan kings.[109] One of Ashoka's rock edicts states:

Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice...Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.[110]

Many Buddhists, especially in East Asia, believe that Buddhism advocates or promotes

Dalai Lama, after contracting hepatitis B, was advised by doctors to switch to a high animal-protein diet.[115] The Dalai Lama eats vegetarian every second day, so he effectively eats a vegetarian diet for six months of the year.[116]
In the West, vegetarianism among Buddhists is also common.

In the

Tripitaka
, there are number of occasions in which the Buddha ate meat as well as recommending certain types of meat as a cure for medical conditions. On one occasion, a general sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. The Buddha declared that:

Meat should not be eaten under three circumstances: when it is seen or heard or suspected (that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); these,

Jivaka
, are the three circumstances in which meat should not be eaten, Jivaka! I declare there are three circumstances in which meat can be eaten: when it is not seen or heard or suspected (that a living being has been purposely slaughtered for the eater); Jivaka, I say these are the three circumstances in which meat can be eaten.

— Jivaka Sutta

The Buddha held that because the food is given by a donor with good intentions, a monk should accept this as long as it is pure in these three respects. To refuse the offering would deprive the donor of the positive karma that giving provides. Moreover, it would create a certain conceit in the monks who would now pick and choose what food to eat. The Buddha did state however that the donor does generate bad karma for himself by killing an animal. In Theravada Buddhist countries, most people do eat meat, however.

While there is no mention of Buddha endorsing or repudiating vegetarianism in surviving portions of

jatakas
), the Buddha is seen clearly to indicate that meat-eating is undesirable and karmically unwholesome.

Environment

Forests and jungles represented the ideal dwelling place for early Buddhists, and many texts praise the forest life as being helpful to meditation. Monks are not allowed to cut down trees as per the Vinaya, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as karmically fruitful. Because of this, Buddhist monasteries are often small nature preserves within the modernizing states in East Asia. The species Ficus religiosa is seen as auspicious, because it is the same kind of tree that the Buddha gained enlightenment under.

In

Dogen
held that plant life was Buddha nature.

In pre-modern times, environmental issues were not widely discussed, though Ashoka banned the burning of forests and promoted the planting of trees in his edicts. Bhikkhu Bodhi, an American Theravada monk, has been outspoken about the issue of environmental crisis. Bodhi holds that the root of the current ecological crisis is the belief that increased production and consumption to satisfy our material and sensual desires leads to well-being. The subjugation of nature is directly opposed to the Buddhist view of non-harming and dwelling in nature. Buddhist activists such as Ajahn Pongsak in Thailand and the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement have worked for reforestation and environmental protection. The Dalai Lama also professes the close relationship of human beings and nature, saying that since humans come from nature, there is no point in going against it. He advocates that a clean environment should be considered a basic human right and that it is our responsibility as humans to ensure that we do all we can to pass on a healthy world to those who come after us.[117]

Gender issues

Buddhist nuns from the Tibetan tradition, volunteering in Kyegundo (Tibet Earthquake zone)

In pre-Buddhist Indian religion, women were seen as inferior and subservient to men. Buddha's teachings tended to promote gender equality as the Buddha held that women had the same spiritual capacities as men did. According to

gender discrimination.[119][120] Alan Sponberg argues that the early Buddhist sangha sought social acceptance through 'institutional androcentrism' as it was dependent on material support from lay society. Because of this Sponberg concludes: "For all its commitment to inclusiveness at the doctrinal level, institutional Buddhism was not able to (or saw no reason to) challenge prevailing attitudes about gender roles in society."[121]
The pre-Mahayana texts also state that while women can become Arhats, they cannot become a
Chakravartins (Wheel turning king), a Ruler of heaven, a Mara devil or a Brahama god.[122]

The

Therigatha is a collection of poems from elder Buddhist nuns, and one of the earliest texts of women's literature. Another important text is the Therī-Apadāna, which collects the biographies of eminent nuns. One such verses are those of the nun Soma, who was tempted by Mara
when traveling in the woods. Mara states that women are not intelligent enough to attain enlightenment, Soma replies with a verse which indicates the insignificance of gender to spirituality:

"What does womanhood matter at all
When the mind is concentrated well,
When knowledge flows on steadily
As one sees correctly into Dhamma.
One to whom it might occur,
'I'm a woman' or 'I'm a man'
Or 'I'm anything at all' —
Is fit for Mara to address."[123]
Guan Yin of the South Sea of Sanya
is the largest statue of a woman in the world.

In

yab-yum
(father-mother).

In

Dogen wrote: "If you wish to hear the Dharma and put an end to pain and turmoil, forget about such things as male and female. As long as delusions have not yet been eliminated, neither men nor women have eliminated them; when they are all eliminated and true reality is experienced, there is no distinction of male and female."[126]

The attitude of Buddhists towards gender has been varied throughout history as it has been influenced by each particular culture and belief system such as Confucianism (which sees women as subservient) and Hinduism. The Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) for example, seems to have been influenced by his Brahmin background in stating that rebirth as a male is higher than rebirth as a female.[127] Some Mahayana sutras such as the 'Sutra on Changing the Female Sex' and the 'Questions of the Daughter Pure Faith' also echo this idea. For various historical and cultural reasons such as wars and invasions, the orders of ordained Buddhist nuns disappeared or was never introduced in Southeast Asia and Tibet, though they slowly started being reintroduced by nuns such as Ayya Khema, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, Tenzin Palmo and Thubten Chodron. Until very recently, China, Taiwan and Korea were the only places where fully ordained bhiksuni lineages still existed. An international conference of Buddhist nuns was held in February 1987 at Bodh Gaya and saw the formation of 'Sakyadhita' (Daughters of the Buddha) the International Association of Buddhist Women which focuses on helping Buddhist nuns throughout the world.[128]

Relationships

The Buddha placed much importance on the cultivation of good will and compassion towards one's parents, spouse, friends and all other beings. Buddhism strongly values harmony in the family and community. Keeping the five precepts and having a generous attitude (Dana) is seen as the foundation for this harmony. An important text, seen as the lay people's Vinaya (code of conduct) is the

Sigalovada Sutta
outlines how a virtuous person "worships the six directions" which are parents (East), teachers (South), wife (West), and friends and colleagues (North), and the two vertical directions as: ascetics and Brahmins (Up) and the Servants (Down). The text elaborates on how to respect and support them, and how in turn the Six will return the kindness and support. The relationships are based on reciprocation, and it is understood one has no right to expect behavior from others unless one also performs good acts in his favor.

Parents for example, are to be respected and supported with the understanding that they are to have provided care and affection to oneself. In marriage, the sutta states that a householder should treat his wife by "being courteous to her, by not despising her, by being faithful to her, by handing over authority to her, by providing her with adornments." while in return the wife "performs her duties well, she is hospitable to relations and attendants, she is faithful, she protects what he brings, she is skilled and industrious in discharging her duties."[129] The Buddha also stated that a wife and husband are to be each other's best friend (parama sakha). While monogamy is the predominant model for marriage, Buddhist societies have also practiced and accepted polygamy and polyandry.[130] Buddhism sees marriage not as sacred but as a secular partnership and hence has no issue with divorce.

Sexuality

The Third (or sometimes Fourth) of the

vows of celibacy
.

Sexual orientation

Among the Buddhist traditions there is a vast diversity of opinion about

Five Precepts. Other sangha hold that if sexuality is compassionate and/or consensual and does not contravene vows, then there is no karmic infraction, irrespective of whether it is same-sex or not. Buddhist communities in Western states as well as in Japan generally tend to be accepting of homosexuality. In Japan, homosexual relations among Buddhist samurai and clergy were actually quite common. Male homosexuality between clergy was especially common in the Tantric Shingon school.[131]

According to the

Pāli Canon and Āgama (the Early Buddhist scriptures), there is no saying that same or opposite gender relations have anything to do with sexual misconduct,[132][133] and some Theravada monks express that same-gender relations do not violate the rule to avoid sexual misconduct, which means not having sex with someone underage (thus protected by their parents or guardians), someone betrothed or married and who have taken vows of religious celibacy.[134]

Some later traditions, like

Abhidharma-kosa and the Jataka tales make no mention of homosexuality in this regard. According to Jose Ignacio Cabezon, Buddhist cultures' attitudes towards homosexuality have generally been neutral.[136]

While both men and women can be ordained,

hermaphrodites are not allowed by the Vinaya. According to the ancient texts this is because of the possibility that they will seduce monks or nuns.[137]
The Vinaya also prevents
Abhidharma-kosa
see pandakas as being spiritually hindered by their sexuality and mental defilements.

Economic ethics

Bhutan's government promotes the concept of 'Gross National Happiness' (GNH), based on Buddhist spiritual values.

Buddha's teachings to laypeople included advice on how to make their living and how to use their wealth. The Buddha considered the creation of wealth to be praiseworthy, so long as it was done morally,[138] in accordance with right livelihood, one of the elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, and which refers to making one's living without killing, being complicit in the suffering of other beings (by selling weapons, poison, alcohol or flesh) or through lying, stealing or deceit.[139]

The Sigalovada Sutta states that a master should look after servants and employees by: "(1) by assigning them work according to their ability, (2) by supplying them with food and with wages, (3) by tending them in sickness, (4) by sharing with them any delicacies, (5) by granting them leave at times" (

Digha Nikaya
31). Early Buddhist texts see success in work as aided by one's spiritual and moral qualities.

In the Adiya Sutta the Buddha also outlined several ways in which people could put their 'righteously gained' wealth to use:[140]

  1. Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to themselves, their mother & father, their children, spouse, slaves, servants, & assistants.
  2. Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to their friends and associates.
  3. Warding off calamities coming from fire, flood, kings, thieves, or hateful heirs, and keeps himself safe.
  4. Performs five oblations/offerings: to relatives, guests, the dead, kings, & devas.
  5. Giving of offerings to priests (
    brahmins
    ) and contemplatives (monks).

The Buddha placed much emphasis on the virtue of giving and sharing, and hence the practice of donating and charity are central to Buddhist economic ethics. Even the poor are encouraged to share, because this brings about greater spiritual wealth: "If beings knew, as I know, the results of giving & sharing, they would not eat without having given, nor would the stain of selfishness overcome their minds. Even if it were their last bite, their last mouthful, they would not eat without having shared, if there were someone to receive their gift."[141] The modern growth of Engaged Buddhism has seen an emphasis on social work and charity. Buddhist aid and activist organizations include Buddhist Global Relief, Lotus Outreach, Buddhist Peace Fellowship, Piyarra Kutta, International Network of Engaged Buddhists, The Tzu Chi Foundation, Nonviolent Peaceforce, and Zen Peacemakers.

Buddhist texts promote the building of public works which benefit the community and stories of Buddhist Kings like

Mahayana Buddhism maintains that lay Bodhisattvas should engage in social welfare activities for the good and safety of others.[143]
In the lands of Southern Buddhism, Buddhist monasteries often became places were the poor, destitute, orphaned, elderly can take shelter. Monasteries often provided education and took care of the sick, and therefore are also centers of social welfare for the poor.

Prayudh Payutto and Sulak Sivaraksa have promoted a Buddhist economics that does not necessarily define itself as socialist but still offers a critique of modern consumer capitalism. E. F. Schumacher
in his "Buddhist economics" (1973) wrote: "Buddhist economics must be very different from the economics of modern materialism, since the Buddhist sees the essence of civilisation not in a multiplication of human wants but in the purification of human character."

While modern economics seeks to satisfy human desires, Buddhism seeks to reduce our desires and hence Buddhist economics would tend to promote a sense of

Prayudh Payutto writes that consumption is only a means to an end which is 'development of human potential' and 'well being within the individual, within society and within the environment'. From a Buddhist perspective then, 'Right consumption' is based on well-being while 'wrong consumption' is the need to 'satisfy the desire for pleasing sensations or ego-gratification'.[146] Similarly, Sulak Sivaraksa argues that "the religion of consumerism emphasizes greed, hatred and delusion" which causes anxiety and that this must be countered with an ethic of satisfaction[147] Modern attempts to practice Buddhist economics can be seen in the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement and in the Gross National Happiness
economics of Bhutan.

While Buddhism encourages wealth gained ethically,[138] it sees greed and craving for riches as negative, and praises contentment as 'the greatest wealth'. Poverty and debt are seen as causes of suffering, immorality, and social unrest if they prevent one from having basic necessities and peace of mind. For laypeople, Buddhism promotes the middle way between a life of poverty and a materialistic or consumerist life in which one is always seeking to enrich oneself and to buy more things.[148] For Buddhist laypersons then, to be Buddhist does not mean to reject all material things, but, according to Sizemore and Swearer: "it specifies an attitude to be cultivated and expressed in whatever material condition one finds oneself. To be non-attached is to possess and use material things but not to be possessed or used by them. Therefore, the idea of non-attachment applies all across Buddhist society, to laymen and monk alike."[149]

See also

Citations

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  7. ., Quote: "This, bhikkhus, is the noble truth that is suffering. Birth is suffering; old age is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow and grief, physical and mental suffering, and disturbance are suffering. [...] In short, all life is suffering, according to the Buddha’s first sermon."
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  10. ., Quote: "The second truth is samudaya (arising or origin). To end suffering, the four noble truths tell us, one needs to know how and why suffering arises. The second noble truth explains that suffering arises because of craving, desire, and attachment."
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  131. AN 10.176. Retrieved 2011-03-14. Abandoning sensual misconduct, he abstains from sensual misconduct. He does not get sexually involved with those who are protected by their mothers, their fathers, their brothers, their sisters, their relatives, or their Dhamma; those with husbands, those who entail punishments, or even those crowned with flowers by another man{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link
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    1. agamaniya vatthu — that which should not be visited (the 20 groups of women).
    2. asmim sevana-cittam — the intention to have intercourse with anyone included in the above-mentioned groups.
    3. sevanap-payogo — the effort at sexual intercourse.
    4. maggena maggappatipatti — sexual contact through that adhivasanam effort.
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References

External links

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