1909 Atlantic hurricane season
1909 Atlantic hurricane season | |
---|---|
Seasonal boundaries | |
First system formed | June 15, 1909 |
Last system dissipated | November 14, 1909 |
Strongest storm | |
Name | Grand Isle |
• Maximum winds | 120 mph (195 km/h) (1-minute sustained) |
• Lowest pressure | 952 mbar (hPa; 28.11 inHg) |
Seasonal statistics | |
Total depressions | 13 |
Total storms | 12 |
Hurricanes | 6 |
Major hurricanes (Cat. 3+) | 4 |
Total fatalities | 4,673 |
Total damage | $77.3 million (1909 USD) |
Related articles | |
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The 1909 Atlantic hurricane season was an average
The 1909 season was very deadly and destructive, featuring at least 4,673 fatalities, and $77.3 million in damage, mostly due to the sixth and eighth hurricanes of the season. In mid-July, the fourth storm of the season hit
Season summary
Tropical cyclogenesis began on or shortly before June 15, when the first system was initially detected in the southwestern Caribbean. The month of June featured two other storms. One cyclone formed in July, the Velasco hurricane. August was the most active month, with four tropical storms, including the Monterrey hurricane. There were two systems in September.[1] The former, the Grand Isle hurricane, was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season, peaking with maximum sustained winds of 120 mph (195 km/h) and a minimum barometric pressure of 952 mbar (28.1 inHg).[2] October and November each featured one storm, the Florida Keys hurricane and the Greater Antilles hurricane, respectively. The twelfth and final cyclone of the season, the Greater Antilles hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the Atlantic Ocean to the northeast of the Lesser Antilles on November 14.[1]
The season had a total of 12 tropical storms, 6 of which intensified into a hurricane. This was the most tropical storms in a season since the total of 13 in
The season's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy (ACE) rating of 93. ACE is a metric used to express the energy used by a tropical cyclone during its lifetime. Therefore, a storm with a longer duration will have high values of ACE. It is only calculated at six-hour increments in which specific tropical and subtropical systems are either at or above sustained wind speeds of 39 mph (63 km/h), which is the threshold for tropical storm intensity. Thus, tropical depressions are not included here.[3]
Systems
Tropical Storm One
Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
Duration | June 15 – June 19 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 45 mph (75 km/h) (1-min); 1009 mbar (hPa) |
The first tropical cyclone of the season was first identified as a tropical depression near the southeastern
Hurricane Two
Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
Duration | June 25 – June 30 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 100 mph (155 km/h) (1-min); 972 mbar (hPa) |
In late June, the season's second tropical cyclone developed near the
Upon making landfall, the hurricane brought a
Tropical Storm Three
Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
Duration | June 26 – July 4 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 50 mph (85 km/h) (1-min); <1005 mbar (hPa) |
A tropical depression developed near
In Florida, the storm brought heavy rainfall to some areas. There was standing water on the streets of Bartow and Lakeland. In Tampa, winds exceeding 30 mph (48 km/h) shattered some windows. There was also "considerable" impact to crops and telegraph and telephone wires. Along the coast, several small crafts were damaged.[8]
Hurricane Four
Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
Duration | July 13 – July 22 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 115 mph (185 km/h) (1-min); 959 mbar (hPa) |
The Velasco Hurricane of 1909
A tropical depression was first noted in close proximity to the Windward Islands on July 13. Remaining weak for the next few days, the system began to intensify after nearing Jamaica on July 17, when it became a tropical storm. Curving towards the northwest, the cyclone reached hurricane strength on July 18 near the western tip of Cuba. Intensification halted as it moved westwards across the Gulf of Mexico, but resumed as the hurricane approached the Texas coast. The storm deepened into a Category 3 hurricane on July 21 and subsequently reached its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph (185 km/h). Shortly thereafter, the hurricane made landfall near Velasco, Texas. Once over land, the system began to quickly weaken, and dissipated near the Rio Grande on July 22.[1]
In Cuba, the storm brought rough seas, strong winds, and persistently heavy rainfall over a period of two days, inundating the streets of Batabanó with about 3 ft (0.91 m) of water. A number of vessels also sank, but no fatalities occurred.[9] In Texas, strong waves caused several offshore shipping incidents, and storm surge inundated areas of the Texas coast,[10] though damage in Galveston was mostly mitigated by the Galveston Seawall.[11] In Velasco, one of the hardest hit cities, only eight buildings remained intact after the hurricane.[10] Strong winds forced train closures and destroyed and downed various infrastructure.[12][13] Heavy rains further inland peaked at 8.5 in (220 mm) in Hallettsville.[14] The hurricane caused 41 deaths and $2 million in damages in Texas.[10]
Tropical Storm Five
Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
Duration | August 6 – August 10 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 45 mph (75 km/h) (1-min); 1004 mbar (hPa) |
On August 6, a new tropical depression was identified between Jamaica and Honduras. Tracking northwestward, the system gradually intensified, attaining tropical storm status near the Cayman Islands later that day. On August 7, the storm turned towards the west and reached its peak intensity just off the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula with winds of 45 mph (75 km/h) and a pressure of 1004 mbar (hPa; 29.65 inHg). Hours later, the cyclone made landfall near
Tropical depression
A tropical depression formed southwest of the Capo Verde Islands on August 7. A nearby ship recorded winds of 52 mph (84 km/h) and a barometric pressure of 1,004 mbar (29.6 inHg) later that day. Thus, the depression may have intensified into a tropical storm. However, due to sparse data, it is unclear if the depression remained a tropical cyclone over the next several days as it tracked westward. The presence of a closed circulation on August 14 and August 18 was confirmed by historic weather maps. On the latter date, the depression again may have strengthened into a tropical storm, though data from the ship observing tropical storm-force winds may have been unreliable. No evidence of a closed circulation exists beyond August 18, and thus, the depression likely dissipated.[2]
Hurricane Six
Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
Duration | August 20 – August 28 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 120 mph (195 km/h) (1-min); 955 mbar (hPa) |
The Monterrey Hurricane of 1909
Originating from a tropical storm east of the Leeward Islands on August 20, the storm tracked west-northwest, entering the Caribbean Sea as a minimal hurricane the next day. After striking Hispaniola on August 23, the hurricane made another landfall in eastern Cuba before reentering the Caribbean. Once back over open water, the storm intensified into a Category 3 hurricane and moved across the northern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula. By August 26, the storm had emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a weakened but regrouping system. It attained its peak winds of 120 mph (185 km/h) that evening. Maintaining this intensity, the system made landfall in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas late on August 27 and rapidly dissipated the following afternoon.[1]
Throughout its existence, the hurricane remained relatively close to land, so consequently it effected many areas of the northern Caribbean Sea. Although the storm impacted several islands, only Haiti reported damage during the hurricane's passage.[15][16] In northeastern Mexico, catastrophic flooding occurred due to the storm, especially in the city of Monterrey.[17] In that city, more than half of the structures were flooded, hundreds were destroyed,[18] and 20,000 people were left homeless.[16][19] Throughout Mexico, reports indicated that 4,000 people were killed by the hurricane, making it the tenth deadliest Atlantic hurricane on record.[20][21] Monetary losses were also estimated to have exceeded $50 million.[19][22]
Tropical Storm Seven
Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
Duration | August 22 – August 25 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 50 mph (85 km/h) (1-min); |
A low-pressure area formed over the central Gulf of Mexico between August 19 and August 20. Ships and weather maps indicate that a tropical depression developed from the low to the northwest of the western tip of Cuba at 00:00 UTC on August 22.[2] The system moved northwestward and intensified into a tropical storm about 24 hours later. By 12:00 UTC on August 23, sustained winds were estimated to have peaked at 50 mph (85 km/h). The storm began curving to the west-southwest shortly thereafter. Late on August 24, the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression while approaching the coast of Mexico,[1] with the weakening probably caused by wind shear generated by the sixth storm.[2] The cyclone made landfall in northern Tamaulipas near the United States border early the following day, and promptly dissipated.[1] The highest wind speed observed on land was 36 mph (58 km/h) in New Orleans.[2]
Tropical Storm Eight
Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
Duration | August 28 – August 31 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 50 mph (85 km/h) (1-min); 1009 mbar (hPa) |
A ship first indicated the presence of this storm about 60 mi (95 km) northeast of Samana Cay in the Bahamas on August 28.[23][1] The cyclone moved west-northwestward and struck the southern end of Abaco Islands later that day. Early on August 9, the storm is estimated to have peaked with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph (85 km/h),[1] based on a minimum barometric pressure of 1,009 mbar (29.8 inHg) observed by a ship.[24] The cyclone made landfall around 09:00 UTC near modern-day Boca Raton, Florida. Moving inland, the system weakened to a tropical depression early on August 30 while just to the west of Lake Okeechobee, where it began curving northwestward. Around midday, the cyclone turned northeastward. Late on August 30, the storm reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean and restrengthened into a tropical storm early the following day. The reintensification was short-lived, with the cyclone weakening to a tropical depression and dissipating about 120 mi (190 km) southeast of Charleston, South Carolina.[1]
Hurricane Nine
Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
Duration | September 13 – September 22 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 120 mph (195 km/h) (1-min); 952 mbar (hPa) |
The Grand Isle Hurricane of 1909
During early September, a tropical disturbance over the western Atlantic began to strengthen as it moved towards the Lesser Antilles.[25] By September 13, the system had become sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression. Moving west-northwestward, the depression attained tropical storm status near Jamaica on September 15 and hurricane intensity the following day. By September 18, the hurricane had attained winds of 100 mph (155 km/h) as it moved over the western tip of Cuba. After briefly weakening due to its interaction with land, the storm re-intensified over the Gulf of Mexico, attaining winds of 120 mph (185 km/h), becoming the third major hurricane of the season. Maintaining this strength, the storm eventually made landfall near Grand Isle, Louisiana, on September 21.[1] Rapid weakening took place as it quickly moved northward, dissipating the following day over Missouri.[25]
In western Cuba, the storm brought strong winds and heavy precipitation to several areas. Numerous buildings suffered severe damage and a large portion of the orange crop was lost. Ships were pushed onshore by the hurricane's large swells.[26] Throughout Pinar del Río Province, damage was estimated at about $1 million.[25] The steamship Nicholas Castina capsized near Isla de la Juventud, drowning at least 29 people.[27] In the United States, the hurricane killed at least 350 people and wrought $10 million in damage.[28] Thousands of homes were destroyed by the cyclone's powerful storm surge which penetrated 2 mi (3.2 km) inland.[29] The states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama sustained the most severe damage, especially from strong winds which covered a large area.[25]
Tropical Storm Ten
Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
Duration | September 24 – September 29 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 60 mph (95 km/h) (1-min); <1000 mbar (hPa) |
Observations from a ship and weather maps indicate that a tropical depression developed near the north coast of Isla de la Juventud on September 24.[30][1] Moving northward, the depression soon struck the Caribbean coast of modern-day Artemisa Province in Cuba.[1] Heavy rainfall and gusty winds were reported in the now defunct Santa Clara Province.[31] The depression emerged into the Gulf of Mexico and failed to intensify further before making landfall near Naples, Florida late on September 25. Moving northeastward, the cyclone emerged into the Atlantic Ocean and strengthened into a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC on September 26. About 24 hours later, the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph (95 km/h). Thereafter, the storm began weakening.[1] However, on September 28, a ship observed a barometric pressure of 1,000 mbar (30 inHg), the lowest known in relation to the storm.[30] Around 00:00 UTC on September 29, the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression just west of Bermuda and dissipated shortly thereafter.[1]
Hurricane Eleven
Key West Hurricane of 1909
Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
Duration | October 6 – October 13 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 120 mph (195 km/h) (1-min); 957 mbar (hPa) |
The storm was first detected in the Caribbean about 35 mi (55 km) northwest of
In western Cuba, strong winds and large waves left severe damage. The cities of Cayuco and La Fe in Pinar del Río Province were completely destroyed, while
Hurricane Twelve
Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
Duration | November 8 – November 14 |
---|---|
Peak intensity | 105 mph (165 km/h) (1-min); |
The final storm of the season formed from a large weather system over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 8.[1][39] Tracking northwestward, the system gradually intensified. On November 11, the storm brushed the eastern tip of Jamaica before attaining hurricane-status several hours later. During the afternoon of November 12, the hurricane made landfall in northeastern Haiti with winds of 85 mph (140 km/h) before entering the Atlantic Ocean. Once in the Atlantic, the storm further intensified to attain peak winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) on November 13 as it accelerated eastward.[1] The system rapidly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone the following day before being absorbed by a frontal system northeast of the Lesser Antilles.[39]
In Jamaica, torrential rains from the storm, peaking at 114.50 in (2,908 mm) at Silver Hill Plantation,[40] wrought widespread damage. Throughout the country, roughly 500,000 banana plants were lost as a result of the floods, about 20% of the entire country's yield.[6] The storm left 30 people dead and $7 million in damage.[41] Nearby Haiti suffered more severe losses from the storm, with 166 people confirmed to have died and hundreds other presumed dead.[42][43][44] Additionally, damage reached at least $3 million.[45] Widespread flooding and landslides destroyed entire villages and ruined transportation.[39]
Season effects
Saffir–Simpson scale | ||||||
TD | TS | C1 | C2 | C3 | C4 | C5 |
Storm name |
Dates active | Storm category at peak intensity |
Max 1-min wind mph (km/h) |
Min. press. (mbar) |
Areas affected | Damage (USD) |
Deaths | Ref(s) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
One | June 15–19 | Tropical storm | 45 (75) | 1009 | Central America | None | 0 | |||
Two | June 25–30 | Category 2 hurricane | 100 (155) | 972 | Texas, Mexico | $1.3 million | 0 | |||
Three | June 26 – July 4 | Tropical storm | 50 (85) | 1005 | Unknown | 0 | ||||
Four | July 13–22 | Category 3 hurricane | 115 (185) | 959 | Cuba, Texas | $2 million | 41 | |||
Five | August 6–10 | Tropical storm | 45 (75) | 1004 | Mexico | None | 0 | |||
Unnumbered | August 7–18 | Tropical depression | Unknown | 1004 | None | None | 0 | |||
Six | August 20–28 | Category 3 hurricane | 120 (195) | 955 | Lesser Antilles, Greater Antilles, Mexico | $50 million | 4,000 | |||
Seven | August 22–25 | Tropical storm | 50 (85) | Unknown | Louisiana, Texas, Mexico | None | 0 | |||
Eight | August 28–31 | Tropical storm | 50 (85) | 1009 | Bahamas, Florida, Georgia | None | 0 | |||
Nine | September 13–22 | Category 3 hurricane | 120 (195) | 952 | Cuba, Gulf Coast of the United States, Arkansas, Tennessee, Missouri, Illinois | $11 million | 400 | |||
Ten | September 24–29 | Tropical storm | 60 (95) | 1000 | Cuba, Florida | None | 0 | |||
Eleven | October 6–13 | Category 3 hurricane | 120 (195) | 957 | Cuba, Florida, Bahamas, Bermuda | $3 million | 34 | |||
Twelve | November 8–14 | Category 2 hurricane | 105 (185) | Unknown | Greater Antilles | $10 million | 198 | |||
Season aggregates | ||||||||||
12 systems | June 15 – November 14 | 120 (195) | 952 | 77.3 | 4,673 |
See also
- 1900–1940 South Pacific cyclone seasons
- 1900–1950 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone seasons
- 1900s Australian region cyclone seasons
References
- General
- Partagás, José Fernández; Diaz, H. (1999). A Reconstruction of Historical Tropical Cyclone Frequency in the Atlantic from Documentary and other Historical Sources Part VI: 1909–1910. Climate Diagnostics Center.
- Ellis, Michael J. (1988). The Hurricane Almanac. Corpus Christi: Hurricane Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9618707-1-3.
- Specific
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved April 18, 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Christopher W. Landsea; et al. Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved August 20, 2016.
- ^ a b c Atlantic basin Comparison of Original and Revised HURDAT. Hurricane Research Division; Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. September 2021. Retrieved October 1, 2021.
- ^ Partagás, pp. 21
- ^ Christopher W. Landsea; et al. Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (Report). Miami, Florida: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved April 26, 2016.
- Roth, David M; Weather Prediction Center. Texas Hurricane History (PDF). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- Staff Writer (August 27, 2009). "Inundación de Monterrey en 1909" (in Spanish). El Periódico de Nuevo León. Archived from the original on September 2, 2009. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
- Edward N. Rappaport; Jose Fernandez-Partagas; Jack L. Beven (April 22, 1997). "The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved May 13, 2010.
- "Flood Death List Now Reaches 2,000". The New York Times. August 31, 1909. p. 4. Retrieved August 27, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- "Twenty Millions Mexican R.R. Loss". The Christian Science Monitor. September 16, 1909. p. 7.
- Edward B. Garriott (September 1909). "Forecasts and Warnings" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 37 (9): 685.
- Staff Writer (September 18, 1909). "Steamer Sink; 29 Perish". Gettysburg Times. p. 2. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- Eric S. Blake; Edward N. Rappaport; Christopher W. Landsea (April 2007). The Deadliest, Costliest, And Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones From 1851 To 2006 (PDF) (Report). National Hurricane Center. Retrieved May 13, 2010.
- "Storm's Course Unknown" (PDF). The New York Times. Washington, D.C. October 12, 1909. p. 2. Retrieved July 12, 2016.
- "Two More Die at Key West" (PDF). The New York Times. Key West, Florida. October 15, 1909. Retrieved July 10, 2016.
- W. J. Gardiner (November 27, 1909). "A Stormy Island And Its History". The New York Times. p. 744. Retrieved August 27, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- "January 12 Earthquake in Haiti" (PDF). Ayitigouvenans. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2012. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- Staff Writer (November 14, 1909). "Hurricane In Haiti Did Great Damage" (PDF). The New York Times. p. C2. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- Staff Writer (November 23, 1909). "Hundreds Killed In Haiti". The Gettysburg Times. p. 2. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- Alexander E. Barthe (November 25, 1909). "The West Indian Sufferers" (PDF). The New York Times. p. 10. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ a b c Partagás, pp. 22
- ^ a b c Partagás, pp. 1
- ^ a b Partagás, pp. 2
- ^ Partagás, pp. 4
- ^ a b c d Roth, David M; Weather Prediction Center. Texas Hurricane History (PDF). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ Ellis, pp. 102
- ^ "No Trains Running". Spokane Daily Chronicle. New York. July 21, 1909. p. 1. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ "More Than a Score Dead in Gulf Storm" (PDF). The New York Times. Houston, Texas. July 23, 1909. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ Schoner, R.W.; Molansky, S. Rainfall Associated With Hurricanes (And Other Tropical Disturbances) (PDF) (Report). United States Weather Bureau's National Hurricane Research Project. p. 86. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ Partagás, pp. 7
- ^ a b Partagás, pp. 8
- ^ "1,200 Persons Lost In Monterrey Flood". The New York Times. August 30, 1909. p. 1. Retrieved August 27, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "Parts of City Washed Away". The New York Times. August 29, 1909. p. 1. Retrieved August 27, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c "Flood Death List Now Reaches 2,000". The New York Times. August 31, 1909. p. 4. Retrieved August 27, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Staff Writer (August 27, 2009). "Inundación de Monterrey en 1909" (in Spanish). El Periódico de Nuevo León. Archived from the original on September 2, 2009. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
- ^ Edward N. Rappaport; Jose Fernandez-Partagas; Jack L. Beven (April 22, 1997). "The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996". National Hurricane Center. Retrieved May 13, 2010.
- ^ a b "Twenty Millions Mexican R.R. Loss". The Christian Science Monitor. September 16, 1909. p. 7.
- ^ Partagás, pp. 9
- ^ Partagás, pp. 10
- ^ . Retrieved May 19, 2016.
- ^ Partagás, pp. 11
- ^ a b Staff Writer (September 18, 1909). "Steamer Sink; 29 Perish". Gettysburg Times. p. 2. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ a b Eric S. Blake; Edward N. Rappaport; Christopher W. Landsea (April 2007). "The Deadliest, Costliest, And Most Intense United States Tropical Cyclones From 1851 To 2006" (PDF). National Hurricane Center. Retrieved May 13, 2010.
- ^ News Special Service (September 22, 1909). "Hundreds of Lives Lost by Hurricane". Dawson Daily News. p. 5. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- ^ a b Partagás, pp. 14
- ^ Partagás, pp. 15
- ^ Partagás, pp. 16
- ^ a b "Storm's Course Unknown" (PDF). The New York Times. Washington, D.C. October 12, 1909. p. 2. Retrieved July 12, 2016.
- ^ a b Partagás, pp. 17
- ^ a b c "Key West Was Half Ruined". St. Lucie County Tribune. October 15, 1909. p. 1. Retrieved July 10, 2016 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b c "Two More Die at Key West" (PDF). The New York Times. Key West, Florida. October 15, 1909. Retrieved July 10, 2016.
- ^ "Hurricane List".
- ^ a b Rappaport, Edward N; Fernandez-Partagas, Jose; National Hurricane Center (January 1995). The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492 – 1994 (PDF) (NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS NHC-47). United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's National Weather Service. p. 7; 23. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 1, 2013. Retrieved January 13, 2013.
- ^ a b c Partagás, pp. 20
- ^ Paulhaus, J. L. H. (1973). World Meteorological Organization Operational Hydrology Report No. 1: Manual For Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation. World Meteorological Organization. p. 178.
- ^ a b W. J. Gardiner (November 27, 1909). "A Stormy Island And Its History". The New York Times. p. 744. Retrieved August 27, 2021 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b "January 12 Earthquake in Haiti" (PDF). Ayitigouvenans. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 6, 2012. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ a b Staff Writer (November 14, 1909). "Hurricane In Haiti Did Great Damage" (PDF). The New York Times. p. C2. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ a b Staff Writer (November 23, 1909). "Hundreds Killed In Haiti". Gettysburg Times. p. 2. Retrieved July 7, 2016.
- ^ a b Alexander E. Barthe (November 25, 1909). "The West Indian Sufferers" (PDF). The New York Times. p. 10. Retrieved July 7, 2016.