1958 Lebanon crisis
1958 Lebanon crisis | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Part of the Cold War and the Arab Cold War | |||||||
American Marine in a foxhole outside Beirut | |||||||
| |||||||
Belligerents | |||||||
United States | |||||||
Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Dwight D. Eisenhower |
Gamal Abdel Nasser | ||||||
Casualties and losses | |||||||
± 1,000 killed or injured United States: 1 killed 1 wounded | + 5,000 killed or injured |
The 1958 Lebanon crisis was a political crisis in
Background
Arab Cold War
After the end of
The
Situation in Lebanon
The
Camille Chamoun was elected as the second President of Lebanon in the presidential elections in 1952, replacing Bechara El Khoury in the post. Described as "quite openly anti-Communist", the United States viewed Chamoun as "definitely our friend."[12] In 1956, Prime Minister Abdallah El-Yafi and Minister of State Saeb Salam resigned in protest due to Chamoun's refusal to condemn the British-French invasion of Egypt during the Suez Crisis. This caused Muslim opposition groups to form the United National Front in 1957. The United States agreed to provide military assistance to the Lebanese government from 6 June 1957.[13]
In 1957, shortly after the announcement of the
On 8 May 1958 a Lebanese journalist, Nasib Al Matni, was assassinated in his office in Beirut.[16] He was a pro-Nasserist and anti-Chamoun Maronite.[16] Following this incident intensive protests occurred in Beirut and Tripoli.[16]
In 1958, Camille Chamoun was in the sixth and final year of his term as President of Lebanon.[17]
Heightened tensions
On 1 February 1958, Syria and Egypt united, forming the UAR.[18][19] The United States feared initially that the new nation would become the dominant power in the Middle East, but recognized it on February 25 after deciding that the UAR could be beneficial in halting communism's spread and keeping Nasser contained.[19] Chamoun and Charles Malik worried that "the peril of subversion in Lebanon" by the UAR "was immediate" and asked for American aid.[20]
Tensions were increasing in Lebanon throughout early 1958. Although Chamoun's term would have expired on 23 September 1958, he intended to run for president again, which was not permitted in the
Protests by various groups—mainly the Sunnis and the Druzes—began in February against the Christian Chamoun, who had also aligned himself in support of the US and Britain, actions that protesters considered breaches of the National Pact.
The leader of the UAR, Nasser, began publicly calling for Arab unity. Various nations, including Lebanon, blamed Nasser's actions for the increase in sectarian unrest, and the Lebanese government filed a formal complaint to the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) on 22 May 1958, accusing the UAR of meddling in the nation's affairs.[30] The UNSC passed a resolution on 11 June 1958 that recommended sending a group to Lebanon "to ensure that there is no illegal infiltration of personnel or supply of arms or other material across the Lebanese borders". A "Group of Three"—Galo Plaza, Rajeshwar Dayal and Odd Bull—Dag Hammarskjöld, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and members of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization were soon dispatched to Lebanon to form the United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL).[31][32]
Operation Blue Bat
This section needs additional citations for verification. (August 2022) |
Eisenhower responded by authorizing Operation Blue Bat on 15 July 1958, in the first application of the Eisenhower Doctrine in which the US announced that it would intervene to protect regimes that it considered to be threatened by international communism. The goal of the operation was to bolster Chamoun's pro-Western Lebanese government from internal opposition and threats from Syria and Egypt. The plan was to occupy and secure
The chain of command for Operation Blue Bat was as follows: the Eisenhower administration at the strategic level; Specified Command, Middle East (SPECCOMME, a 'double-hat' for Commander in Chief, US Naval Forces, Eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean) at the operational level; the United States Sixth Fleet, with aircraft carriers USS Saratoga, USS Essex and USS Wasp, cruisers USS Des Moines and USS Boston, and two destroyer squadrons, including the USS The Sullivans DD-537, USS Leary, USS Vesole and the USS William M. Wood. At the end of June, Essex and Boston were anchored at Piraeus, Greece, while Des Moines, from which Vice Admiral Charles R. Brown was flying his flag, was at Villefranche-sur-Mer, France.[33] Land forces included the 2nd Provisional Marine Force (Task Force 62) and the United States Army Task Force 201 at the tactical level.[34] Each of these three components influenced Operations Plan 215-58 and its execution.
The operation involved more than 14,000 men, including 8,509 US Army personnel, a contingent from the 1st Airborne Battle Group, 187th Infantry from the 24th Infantry Division and 5,670 officers and men of the United States Marine Corps (the 2nd Provisional Marine Force, of Battalion Landing Teams 1st Battalion, 8th Marines and 2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines under Brigadier General Sidney S. Wade). The 2nd Battalion, 8th Marines arrived on July 16 after a 54-hour airlift from Cherry Point, North Carolina.[35] They were supported by a fleet of 70 ships and 40,000 sailors.[36] On 16 July 1958, Admiral James L. Holloway Jr., CINCNELM and CINCSPECCOMME, flew in from London to Beirut airport and boarded USS Taconic from which he commanded the remainder of the operation.[37] The US withdrew its forces on 25 October 1958.
Eisenhower sent the diplomat Robert Daniel Murphy to Lebanon as his personal representative. Murphy played a significant role in convincing both sides of the conflict to reach a compromise by electing the moderate Christian general Fouad Chehab as incoming president, but allowing Chamoun to continue in power until the end of his term, on September 22.
Lebanese Prime Minister Rashid Karami formed a national reconciliation government after the end of the 1958 crisis.
See also
- Multinational Force in Lebanon
- Lebanese Civil War
- 1982 Lebanon War
- Foreign interventions by the United States
- United States involvement in regime change
References
- ISBN 9780671456542.
- ^ "Milestones: 1945–1952". Office of the Historian. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
- ^ "What was the Cold War?". CBBC Newsround. 23 May 2019. Retrieved 2020-11-25.
- S2CID 159381348.
- ^ a b c "The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957". United States Department of State. 2007-04-02. Retrieved 2020-11-25. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Hahn 2006, p. 38.
- ^ Hahn 2006, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Hahn 2006, pp. 42–43.
- ^ French Mandate 1923, p. 1.
- ^ Traboulsi 2012, p. 108.
- ^ Faruki 1974, p. 28.
- ^ Little 1996, p. 31.
- ^ "21. Lebanon (1943–present)". uca.edu. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
- ^ Little 1996, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Little 1996, pp. 35–37.
- ^ JSTOR 40393919.
- ^ a b Tucker 2020, p. 276.
- ^ Cotran 1959, p. 347.
- ^ a b Hahn 2006, p. 44.
- ^ a b Little 1996, p. 37.
- ^ S2CID 218578102.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-317-84877-6.
- ^ Little 1996, p. 38.
- ^ Little 1996, pp. 38–39.
- ^ Rowayheb 2011, pp. 416–417.
- ^ Rowayheb 2011, p. 416.
- ^ Little 1996, p. 39.
- ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2020-11-23.
- ^ Little 1996, pp. 39–40.
- S2CID 218578102.
- S2CID 218578102.
- ^ Mesquita & White 2015, p. 154.
- Metuchen(NJ) and London, 1980, 128.
- ^ Scott Jackman, Political Success in War: A Criterion for Success, DTIC.
- ^ For more on the naval and Marine Corps forces involved, see Bryson, 1980, 126–140.
- ^ "Amphibious Warfare History". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2011-03-22.
- ^ Bryson, 1980, 131.
Bibliography
- Ben-Zvi, Abraham (September 2005). "The July 1958 Jordanian Crisis and the Origins of the American–Israeli Alliance: A New Perspective". Journal of Israeli History. 24 (2): 215–228. S2CID 145271287.
- Cotran, Eugene (1959). "Some Legal Aspects of the Formation of the United Arab Republic and the United Arab States". The International and Comparative Law Quarterly. 8 (2): 346–390. JSTOR 755809.
- Faruki, Kemal A. (1974). "The National Covenant Of Lebanon: Its Genesis". Pakistan Horizon. 27 (3): 19–31. JSTOR 41403854.
- Gerges, Fawaz A. (1993). "The Lebanese Crisis of 1958: The Risks of Inflated Self-Importance". Beirut Review: 83–113.
- Hahn, Peter L. (2006). "Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 36 (1): 38–47. JSTOR 27552745.
- Hughes, Ann (December 2002). "'Impartiality' and the UN Observation Group in Lebanon, 1958". International Peacekeeping. 9 (4): 2–20. S2CID 143815962.
- Karam, Jeffrey G. (September 2017). "Missing revolution: the American intelligence failure in Iraq, 1958". Intelligence and National Security. 32 (6): 693–709. S2CID 157492629.
- Kona Nayudu, Swapna (2018-04-03). "'In the very eye of the storm': India, the UN, and the Lebanon crisis of 1958". Cold War History. 18 (2): 221–237. S2CID 218578102.
- Labelle, Maurice M. (February 2013). "A New Age of Empire? Arab 'Anti-Americanism', US Intervention, and the Lebanese Civil War of 1958". The International History Review. 35 (1): 42–69. S2CID 154926637.
- Lesch, David W. (1996). "Prelude to the 1958 American Intervention in Lebanon". Mediterranean Quarterly. 7 (3): 87–108.
- Little, Douglas (1996). "His Finest Hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East Crisis". Diplomatic History. 20 (1): 27–54. .
- McAlexander, Richard J. (August 2011). "Couscous Mussolini: US perceptions of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the 1958 intervention in Lebanon and the origins of the US–Israeli special relationship". Cold War History. 11 (3): 363–385. S2CID 153604066.
- Mesquita, Ana Guedes; White, Nigel D. (2015). "United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon (UNOGIL)". In Koops, Alexander; MacQueen, Norrie; Tardy, Thierry; Williams, Paul D. (eds.). Oxford Handbook of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. pp. 153–159. ISBN 978-0-19-968604-9.
- Ovendale, Ritchie (1994). "Great Britain and the Anglo-American Invasion of Jordan and Lebanon in 1958". The International History Review. 16 (2): 284–304. .
- Rowayheb, Marwan George (December 2011). "Political Change and the Outbreak of Civil War: The Case of Lebanon". Civil Wars. 13 (4): 414–436. S2CID 143827435.
- Shlaim, Avi (May 1999). "Israel, the great powers, and the middle east crisis of 1958". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 27 (2): 177–192. ISSN 0308-6534.
- Traboulsi, Fawwaz (2012), "From Mandate to Independence (1920–1943)", A History of Modern Lebanon, Pluto Press, pp. 88–109, JSTOR j.ctt183p4f5.12, retrieved 2020-11-25
- Tinguy, Edouard de (2007). "The Lebanese crisis of 1958 and the U.S military intervention". Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique (in French). 4. Paris: A. Pédone.
- Tucker, Spencer C. (2020-10-27). The Cold War: The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection [5 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-4408-6076-8.
- "French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon". The American Journal of International Law. 17 (3): 177–182. 1923. S2CID 163370230.
Further reading
Books and studies
- Alin, Erika G. The United States and the 1958 Lebanon Crisis, American Intervention in the Middle East, 1994.
- Brands, H.W. Into the Labyrinth: The United States and the Middle East, 1945-1993 (1994) excerpt pp 72–80.
- Gendzier, Irene L. Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East 1945–1958, 1997
- Korbani, Agnes G. U.S. Intervention in Lebanon, 1958–1982: presidential decisionmaking, 1991.
- Schulimson, Jack. Marines in Lebanon 1958, Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Washington, Department of the Navy, United States Marine Corps, 1966, 60 p.
- Wright, Quincy. "United States intervention in the Lebanon." American Journal of International Law 53.1 (1959): 112–125.
- Yaqub, Salim. Containing Arab Nationalism, The Eisenhower Doctrine and the Middle East, 2003.
- The Lebanon Operation. Contingency Operations. United States Army Center of Military History. Historical Manuscript Collection 2–3.7 AC.F Tab D. Archived from the original on 12 June 2010. Retrieved 2 July 2010.
Other languages
- Pierrick el Gammal, Politique intérieure et politique extérieure au Liban de 1958 à 1961 de Camille Chamoun à Fouad Chehab, Sorbonne University (Paris), 1991. (French)
- Nawaf Salam, L'insurrection de 1958 au Liban, Sorbonne University (Paris), 1979. (French)
Primary sources
- Mohammed Shafi Agwani, ed. The Lebanese Crisis, 1958: A Documentary Study, 1965.