1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak
This article is missing information about several deadly and destructive F4s need a detailed summary here.(December 2023) |
Type | Tornado outbreak |
---|---|
Duration | April 10–12, 1965 |
Highest gust | 80 mph (130 km/h) at three locations on April 11[1] |
Tornadoes confirmed | 55 confirmed |
Max. rating1 | F4 tornado |
Duration of tornado outbreak2 | 1 day and 16 hours |
Largest hail | 2 in (5.1 cm) at seven locations on April 10–12[2] |
Fatalities | 266 fatalities, 3,662 injuries |
Damage | $1.217 billion (1965 USD)[nb 1][3] $11.8 billion (2024 USD) |
Areas affected | Southern and Midwestern United States (Upland South, Driftless Area, and Great Lakes region, primarily Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan) |
Part of the tornadoes and tornado outbreaks of 1965 1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale 2Time from first tornado to last tornado |
On April 10–12, 1965, a historic severe weather event affected the Midwestern and Southeastern United States. The tornado outbreak produced 55 confirmed tornadoes in one day and 16 hours. The worst part of the outbreak occurred during the afternoon hours of April 11 into the overnight hours going into April 12. The second-largest tornado outbreak on record at the time, this deadly series of tornadoes, which became known as the 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak, inflicted a swath of destruction from Cedar County, Iowa, to Cuyahoga County, Ohio, and a swath 450 miles long (724 km) from Kent County, Michigan, to Montgomery County, Indiana. The main part of the outbreak lasted 16 hours and 35 minutes and is among the most intense outbreaks, in terms of tornado strength, ever recorded, including at least four "double/twin funnel" tornadoes. In all, the outbreak killed 266 people, injured 3,662 others, and caused $1.217 billion (1965 USD) in damage.[nb 2][nb 3][nb 4]
Background
A vigorous
The well-defined
A
At 11:45 a.m. CDT (16:45 UTC) on April 11, the
Confirmed tornadoes
FU | F0 | F1 | F2 | F3 | F4 | F5 | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 1 | 16 | 14 | 6 | 18 | 0 | 55 |
Lakewood–Crystal Lake–Burtons Bridge–Island Lake, Illinois
F4 tornado | |
---|---|
Max. rating1 | F4 tornado |
Fatalities | 6 fatalities, 75 injuries |
Damage | $1.5 million (1965 USD) $14.5 million (2024 USD) |
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale |
This devastating tornado was first detected at 3:27 p.m. CDT (21:27 UTC), but officially touched down seven minutes earlier, in Lakewood. At that time the tornado first produced visible damage, at the Crystal Lake Country Club; two firs on the golf course were prostrated. Initially narrow, the tornado subsequently and rapidly widened to 1,300 feet (400 m). Crossing Nash Street and McHenry Avenue in Crystal Lake, the tornado unroofed or severely damaged several houses. Alongside U.S. Route 14 the tornado claimed its first fatality, a man in a barn. Nearby gas stations and a strip mall were damaged. At the latter place, a roof sheltering a Piggly Wiggly and a Neisner's collapsed, trapping 20 or more people below. The tornado tossed cars about in the parking lot as well. Shortly afterward, the tornado struck the Colby subdivision, destroying or severely damaging 155 homes. F4-level damage occurred as several homes were completely swept off their foundations. Four deaths occurred in the neighborhood, including three in one family whose home was obliterated. Their bodies were located two blocks distant and a pickup truck was found to have landed in the basement. The tornado scattered debris from the Colby subdivision up to a one-half mile (0.80 km) away.
After ravaging the Colby neighborhood, the tornado destroyed a number of warehouses and shattered windows. A diesel plant, a wallpaper factory, and a manufacturer sustained damage ranging from light to heavy. The tornado then extensively damaged the Orchard Acres subdivision, crossed Illinois Route 31, and apparently weakened before impacting farmland. A few barns and isolated trees were damaged. The tornado may have dissipated and reformed as a new tornado near the Fox River. The tornado also struck the community of Burtons Bridge. The tornado, now 500 to 800 yards (460 to 730 m) wide, then restrengthened and felled mature oak trees as it crested a precipitous hill before striking Bay View Beach. There the tornado badly damaged a number of homes and downed willow trees. Finally, the tornado intersected Illinois Route 176 and produced its final swath of significant damage in Island Lake. In Island Lake the tornado tossed boats ashore, wrecked piers, and caused homes to collapse, resulting in one additional death. The tornado also displaced several homes from their foundations. The tornado neared U.S. Route 12 as it dissipated at 3:42 p.m. CST (21:42 UTC). Damage estimates were set at about $1.5 million.[29]
Northern Goshen–Midway, Indiana
F4 tornado | |
---|---|
Max. rating1 | F4 tornado |
Fatalities | 31 fatalities, 252 injuries |
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale |
This was the most famous and well-publicized of the Palm Sunday tornadoes, often remembered as the first of two F4 tornadoes to hit the Dunlap (Elkhart)–Goshen area. It formed near the
Coldwater Lake–Southern Hillsdale–Manitou Beach–Devils Lake–Southern Tecumseh, Michigan (two tornadoes)
Tornadoes confirmed | 2 |
---|---|
Max. rating1 | F4 tornado |
Fatalities | 44 fatalities, 587 injuries |
Damage | $32 million (1965 USD) $309 million (2024 USD) |
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale |
With the telephone lines down, emergency services in Elkhart County, Indiana, could not warn Michigan residents that the tornadoes were headed their way. From the Detroit Metropolitan Airport, the radar operator at the U.S. Weather Bureau Office (WBO) observed that the thunderstorms over Northern Indiana and western Lower Michigan were moving east-northeastward at 70 mph (110 km/h). Of the southernmost counties of Michigan, all but three—Berrien, Cass, and St. Joseph—were hit.
Starting just south of the Indiana-Michigan state line, near Orland, the first, deadliest, and strongest of two massive tornadoes, each rated F4, debarked trees and leveled homes on the shoreline of Lake Pleasant in Steuben County. Crossing into Branch County, Michigan, the tornado damaged more homes in East Gilead. The tornado was up to 1 mile (1.6 km) wide as it obliterated homes on Coldwater Lake; 18 deaths occurred there. Debris from the empty foundations was strewn over the surface of the lake and deposited in a small cove. The tornado destroyed 200 homes and caused one additional death as it traversed Branch County. After striking Coldwater Lake, the tornado widened even further, up to 2 miles (3.2 km) across, destroying a century-old farmhouse and killing a family of six near Reading. The tornado then narrowed back to 1 mile (1.6 km) as it struck Baw Beese Lake, near the southern edge of Hillsdale. The tornado hurled a New York Central Railroad freight train into Baw Beese Lake. Across Hillsdale County the tornado killed 11 or more people and destroyed 177 homes.
Entering Lenawee County, the tornado traversed the Irish Hills and approached Manitou Beach–Devils Lake. As it struck Manitou Beach–Devils Lake, the tornado destroyed the Manitou Beach Baptist Church; of the 50 people then in attendance for Palm Sunday services, 26 failed to reach shelter in time and were stranded beneath debris for up to two hours. Eight fatalities occurred in the church. The local dance pavilion on Devils Lake was demolished, having recently been rebuilt after a fire on Labor Day in 1963. One of the tornadoes damaged parts of Onsted; in the nearby village of Tipton, which suffered a direct hit, 94% of the town's buildings were damaged or destroyed. Across Lenawee County the tornado destroyed 189 homes. About 30 minutes later, the Manitou Beach–Devils Lake area in Lenawee County was hit by the second of the two tornadoes, causing numerous fatalities, including a family of six in eastern Lenawee County. Many homes were hit twice.
One or both F4 tornadoes struck the then-Village of Milan, south of Ann Arbor. The Wolverine Plastics building on the Monroe County side of town, then the top employer in the village, was destroyed with the roof being completely removed in the process. The Milan Junior High School was seriously damaged along with the adjacent, senior high school, disused since 1958, at Hurd and North streets, on the Washtenaw County side of Milan. Milan became a city in 1967; opened a new Middle School in 1969, which replaced the old Junior High School; and eventually demolished the 1900 building that housed the former junior and senior high schools.
The first of the F4 tornadoes produced a 151-mile-per-hour (243 km/h) wind gust at
Southern Elkhart–Dunlap, Indiana
F4 tornado | |
---|---|
Max. rating1 | F4 tornado |
Fatalities | 36 fatalities, 321 injuries |
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale |
This was the second and deadliest of two violent tornadoes to strike the Elkhart–Goshen area, with the highest single-tornado death toll in the outbreak. It hit Dunlap about an hour after another F4 tornado hit the Midway trailer park a short distance to the southeast. Few people received warning due to the passage of the earlier storm, which disrupted communications and downed power lines, thereby affecting rescue efforts after the earlier tornado as well. The Dunlap tornado first produced tree damage beginning just west of State Road 331. Prior to crossing the St. Joseph–Elkhart county line, the tornado claimed its first two fatalities. As the tornado neared Dunlap, it intensified into an extremely violent tornado. It then devastated the Sunnyside Housing addition and the unoccupied Sunnyside Mennonite Church. The Sunnyside subdivision was completely destroyed, with many homes swept away. The Kingston Heights subdivision was similarly devastated. The death toll from the two subdivisions was 28 people, with another six killed in a home and truck stop at the junction of State Road 15 and U.S. Route 20. The Palm Sunday Tornado Memorial Park now exists near this location, at the corner of County Road 45 and Cole Street in Dunlap (41°38′29″N 85°55′31″W / 41.641522°N 85.925157°W). After striking Dunlap, the tornado apparently weakened somewhat, but still generated extensive damage eastward to Hunter Lake. Shortly before dissipating, the tornado tossed cars off the Indiana Turnpike near Scott. Like the Midway tornado, the Dunlap event was also witnessed as twin funnels: a photographer standing amidst the wreckage of the Midway Trailer Court captured the Dunlap tornado as it passed just to the north. It may have been the strongest tornado on April 11; in fact, Grazulis and other sources have assigned an F5 rating to the tornado, though it is officially rated F4.[32]
Russiaville–Alto–Southern Kokomo–Greentown–Southern Marion, Indiana
F4 tornado | |
---|---|
Max. rating1 | F4 tornado |
Fatalities | 25 fatalities, 835 injuries |
Damage | $500.025 million (1965 USD) |
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale |
As the Lafayette–Middlefork tornado dissipated, a new tornado developed nearby without a definite break in the damage path. Due to changes in the intensity of the damage, surveyors split the path into two separate tornadoes. At about 7:28 p.m. CDT (00:28 UTC), the new, rapidly strengthening tornado hit Russiaville, causing severe damage to the entire community. The 3⁄4-mile-wide (1.2 km) tornado destroyed or damaged 90% of the community, though most of the damage ranged from F0–F3. The tornado then widened to 1 mile (1.6 km) across as it moved into nearby Alto, causing F4-level damage to homes, before striking the southern edge of the larger city of Kokomo. Collectively, the tornado destroyed 100 homes in Alto and Kokomo. The Maple Crest apartment complex was unroofed and incurred the collapse of its uppermost walls. As the tornado continued eastward, it apparently intensified and killed ten people in Greentown, most of whom had been in automobiles. The tornado destroyed 80 homes, many of which it obliterated and swept away, as it struck multiple subdivisions in the Greentown area. In all, the tornado killed 18 people and injured another 600 in Howard County alone. Just south of Swayzee, the tornado leveled some more homes and caused three additional deaths. As it struck the southern outskirts of Marion, the tornado leveled a pair of homes, partly unroofed a Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) hospital, and wrecked the Panorama shopping center. 20 injuries occurred at the VA hospital, and looters scavenged the shopping center. Several homes were destroyed and hundreds others damaged in Marion as well. The tornado killed five people as it traversed Grant County. Losses totaled $500.025 million, $12 million alone of which occurred near Marion.[33]
Pittsfield–Grafton–Strongsville, Ohio
F4 tornado | |
---|---|
Max. rating1 | F4 tornado |
Fatalities | 18 fatalities, 200 injuries |
Damage | $50 million (1965 USD) $483 million (2024 USD) |
1Most severe tornado damage; see Fujita scale |
Shortly after 11:00 p.m. CDT (04:00 UTC), a tornado touched down in
After ravaging Pittsfield, the tornado damaged 200 homes in and near Grafton, some of which indicated F2-level intensity. A total of 17 homes were severely damaged in nearby LaGrange and Columbia Station. As the tornado reached the Cleveland metropolitan area, it diverged into two paths about a one-half mile (0.80 km) apart. Several witnesses also saw two funnels merging into one, similar to the Midway–Dunlap tornadoes. Large trees situated 50 feet (15 m) apart were found to have been felled in opposite directions. The tornado displayed borderline-F5-level damage in northernmost Strongsville. There, 18 homes were leveled, some of which were cleanly swept from their foundations, and 50 others were severely damaged in town. Damages amounted to at least $5 million and are officially listed as $50 million. Grazulis classified the tornado as an F5, but it is officially rated F4.[34]
Non-tornadic effects
State | Total | County | County total |
---|---|---|---|
Arkansas | 6 | Faulkner | 6 |
Iowa | 1 | Cedar | 1 |
Illinois | 6 | McHenry | 6 |
Indiana | 137 | Adams | 1 |
Boone | 20 | ||
Elkhart | 62 | ||
Grant | 8 | ||
Hamilton | 6 | ||
Howard | 17 | ||
Lagrange
|
10 | ||
Marshall | 3 | ||
Montgomery | 2 | ||
St. Joseph | 3 | ||
Starke | 4 | ||
Wells | 1 | ||
Michigan | 53 | Allegan | 1 |
Branch | 18 | ||
Clinton | 1 | ||
Hillsdale | 6 | ||
Kent | 5 | ||
Lenawee | 9 | ||
Monroe | 13 | ||
Ohio | 60 | Allen | 11 |
Cuyahoga | 1 | ||
Delaware | 4 | ||
Hancock | 2 | ||
Lorain | 17 | ||
Lucas | 16 | ||
Mercer | 2 | ||
Seneca | 4 | ||
Shelby | 3 | ||
Wisconsin | 3 | Jefferson | 3 |
Totals | 266 | ||
All deaths were tornado-related |
A vigorous, pre-frontal
Aftermath and recovery
In the Midwest, at least 266 people—some sources say 256–271—were killed and 1,500 injured (1,200 in
Five books on the 1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak have been penned to date. David Wagler of Indiana released "The Mighty Whirlwind" in 1966, interviewing survivors and eyewitnesses within months after the tornadoes. Dan Cherry released "Night of the Wind" in 2002; Roger Pickenpaugh published "The Night of the Wicked Winds" in 2003; Cherry wrote "50 Years Later" in 2015 with all-color images of the aftermath; and Janis Thornton published "The 1965 Palm Sunday Tornadoes in Indiana" in 2022.Oddities/records
Additionally, significant scientific data were gathered from aerial surveys of the tornado paths. The outbreak was the first to be studied in-depth aerially by tornado scientist Tetsuya Theodore Fujita, who proposed new theories about the structure of tornadoes based upon his study. Dr. Fujita discovered suction vortices during the Palm Sunday tornado outbreak. It had previously been thought the reason why tornadoes could hit one house and leave another across the street completely unscathed was because the tornado would "jump" from one house to another. However, Fujita discovered that the actual reason is most destruction is caused by suction vortices: small, intense mini-tornadoes within the main tornado.[39]
The tornado outbreak generated 38 significant tornadoes, 18 of them violent—F4 or F5 on the Fujita scale of tornado intensity—and 22 deadly. Covering six states and about 335 sq mi (870 km2), the outbreak killed 266 people and became the deadliest to hit the United States since 1936, although more recently the 1974 and 2011 Super Outbreaks claimed that distinction. The 17 violent tornadoes on April 11, 1965, set a 24-hour record that stood until the first Super Outbreak produced 30 in 1974.[40] With 137 people killed and 1,200 injured in Indiana alone, the outbreak set a 24-hour record for tornado deaths in that state;[41] it also generated nine tornadoes of F4 or greater intensity in the same state, which set a single-state record for an outbreak until April 3, 1974.[42]
An unusually pronounced elevated mixed layer (EML) was present over the Great Lakes region during the outbreak—a similar pattern having been observed on
See also
- Lists of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
- Tornado outbreak of April 2–3, 1956 – Produced a powerful F5 tornado family in Michigan
- 1920 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak – Generated deadly F4 tornadoes in the Great Lakes region
- the Carolinas
- 1974 Super Outbreak – Associated with numerous violent tornadoes across much of Indiana and Greater Cincinnati
Notes
- ^ All losses are in 1965 USD unless otherwise noted.
- outbreak sequence, prior to (after) the start of modern records in 1950, is defined as a period of no more than two (one) consecutive days without at least one significant (F2 or stronger) tornado.[4]
- ^ The Fujita scale was devised under the aegis of scientist T. Theodore Fujita in the early 1970s. Prior to the advent of the scale in 1971, tornadoes in the United States were officially unrated.[5][6] While the Fujita scale has been superseded by the Enhanced Fujita scale in the U.S. since February 1, 2007,[7] Canada used the old scale until April 1, 2013;[8] nations elsewhere, like the United Kingdom, apply other classifications such as the TORRO scale.[9]
- ^ Historically, the number of tornadoes globally and in the United States was and is likely underrepresented: research by Grazulis on annual tornado activity suggests that, as of 2001, only 53% of yearly U.S. tornadoes were officially recorded. Documentation of tornadoes outside the United States was historically less exhaustive, owing to the lack of monitors in many nations and, in some cases, to internal political controls on public information.[10] Most countries only recorded tornadoes that produced severe damage or loss of life.[11] Significant low biases in U.S. tornado counts likely occurred through the early 1990s, when advanced NEXRAD was first installed and the National Weather Service began comprehensively verifying tornado occurrences.[12]
- ^ This was known as a Severe Weather Forecast at the time.[20]
- ^ At the time tornado watches were called tornado forecasts; SELS only began using the former terminology in 1966, after the Palm Sunday event. Respondents to a post-event survey noted that they confused tornado warnings with tornado forecasts; in turn, this contributed to the high death toll on April 11–12.[22][23][24][25]
References
- ^ Storm Data Publication 1965, Events reported between 04/10/1965 and 04/12/1965 (3 days)
- ^ a b Storm Data Publication 1965, Events reported between 04/10/1965 and 04/12/1965 (3 days)
- ^ a b Storm Data Publication 1965, Events reported between 04/10/1965 and 04/12/1965 (3 days)
- ^ Schneider, Russell S.; Brooks, Harold E.; Schaefer, Joseph T. (2004). Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: Historic Events and Climatology (1875–2003) (PDF). 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Retrieved September 17, 2019.
- ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 141.
- ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 131.
- ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
- ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. June 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
- ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
- ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 251–4.
- ^ Edwards, Roger (March 5, 2015). "The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC)". Storm Prediction Center: Frequently Asked Questions about Tornadoes. Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
- ^ Cook & Schaefer 2008, p. 3135.
- ^ Weather Forecast Office. Syracuse, Indiana: National Weather Service. Archived from the originalon 4 April 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g Deedler, William R. (April 2015) [2005]. "Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak April 11th, 1965". Detroit/Pontiac, MI Weather Forecast Office. White Lake, Michigan: National Weather Service. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f Fujita & Bradbury 1970, pp. 30–1.
- ^ a b c d Naftel, Blake (3 April 2005). "The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak - April 11, 1965". The Palm Sunday Outbreak. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University. Archived from the original on 8 April 2005. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Kutschenreuter & Fox 1965, p. 1.
- ^ Fujita & Bradbury 1970, p. 52.
- ^ Fujita & Bradbury 1970, p. 33.
- ^ a b c Heidorn, Keith C. (14 September 2010) [2007]. "1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak Part I: The Beginning". The Weather Doctor. Valemount, British Columbia: Islandnet.com. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ^ Kutschenreuter & Fox 1965, p. 2, Annex 2.
- ^ Kutschenreuter & Fox 1965, p. 6.
- ^ "The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak of 1965 in West Michigan". Grand Rapids, MI Weather Forecast Office. Grand Rapids, Michigan: National Weather Service. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ a b c Grazulis 2001a, p. 91.
- ^ Heidorn, Keith C. (14 September 2010) [2007]. "1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak Part III: Last Strikes and Aftermath". The Weather Doctor. Valemount, British Columbia: Islandnet.com. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
- ^ a b c Eagan, Shane (April 2015). "50th Anniversary of the 1965 Palm Sunday Outbreak". Chicago, IL Weather Forecast Office. Romeoville, Illinois: National Weather Service. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Kutschenreuter & Fox 1965, p. 6, Annex 2.
- ^ NWS 1974, p. 18.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Allsopp, Jim (Spring 2005). "40th anniversary of the Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak". NWS Chicago Newsletter. Romeoville, Illinois: National Weather Service. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
- Eagan, Shane (April 2015). "50th Anniversary of the 1965 Palm Sunday Outbreak". Chicago, IL Weather Forecast Office. Romeoville, Illinois: National Weather Service. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- "1965 Palm Sunday Tornado". Crystal Lake Historical Society. Crystal Lake, Illinois. Archived from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1063
- Heidorn, Keith C. (14 September 2010) [2007]. "1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak Part I: The Beginning". The Weather Doctor. Valemount, British Columbia: Islandnet.com. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Naftel, Blake (3 April 2005). "The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak - April 11, 1965". The Palm Sunday Outbreak. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University. Archived from the original on 8 April 2005. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1063
- Fujita & Bradbury 1970, p. 38
- Blake Naftel; Jon Chamberlain; Becky Monroe; Ed Lacey Jr.; Dick Loney (2015). "April 11th 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak". Northern Indiana Weather Forecast Office. Syracuse, Indiana: National Weather Service. Archived from the originalon 4 April 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- Heidorn, Keith C. (14 September 2010) [2007]. "1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak Part II: Sunday Evening". The Weather Doctor. Valemount, British Columbia: Islandnet.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Fujita & Bradbury 1970, pp. 38–9
- Naftel, Blake (3 April 2005). "The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak - April 11, 1965". The Palm Sunday Outbreak. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University. Archived from the original on 8 April 2005. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1065
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1066
- Storm Data 1965, p. 35
- Heidorn, Keith C. (14 September 2010) [2007]. "1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak Part II: Sunday Evening". The Weather Doctor. Valemount, British Columbia: Islandnet.com. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2020.
- Blake Naftel; Jon Chamberlain; Becky Monroe; Ed Lacey Jr.; Dick Loney (2015). "April 11th 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak". Northern Indiana Weather Forecast Office. Syracuse, Indiana: National Weather Service. Archived from the originalon 4 April 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- "The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak of 1965 in West Michigan". Grand Rapids, MI Weather Forecast Office. Grand Rapids, Michigan: National Weather Service. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1066
- Lott, McCown & Ross 2000, p. 13
- Blake Naftel; Jon Chamberlain; Becky Monroe; Ed Lacey Jr.; Dick Loney (2015). "April 11th 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak". Northern Indiana Weather Forecast Office. Syracuse, Indiana: National Weather Service. Archived from the originalon 4 April 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- Naftel, Blake (3 April 2005). "The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak - April 11, 1965". The Palm Sunday Outbreak. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University. Archived from the original on 8 April 2005. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- Fujita & Bradbury 1970, pp. 36–7
- Fujita & Bradbury 1970, p. 38
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Fujita & Bradbury 1970, p. 40
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1066
- ^ Multiple sources:
- Blake Naftel; Jon Chamberlain; Becky Monroe; Ed Lacey Jr.; Dick Loney (2015). "April 11th 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak". Northern Indiana Weather Forecast Office. Syracuse, Indiana: National Weather Service. Archived from the originalon 4 April 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- "Tornado Rips County, 17 Die, 94 Injured". The Journal. No. 244. Lorain, Ohio. April 12, 1965.
- "As the Sun Rose...Just Rubble". The Boston Globe. Boston, Massachusetts. April 13, 1965.
- Naftel, Blake (3 April 2005). "The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak - April 11, 1965". The Palm Sunday Outbreak. Kalamazoo, Michigan: Western Michigan University. Archived from the original on 8 April 2005. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- Grazulis 1993, p. 1072
- Heidorn, Keith C. (14 September 2010) [2007]. "1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak Part III: Last Strikes and Aftermath". The Weather Doctor. Valemount, British Columbia: Islandnet.com. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
- Blake Naftel; Jon Chamberlain; Becky Monroe; Ed Lacey Jr.; Dick Loney (2015). "April 11th 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak". Northern Indiana
- ^ Storm Data 1965, p. 35.
- ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 207.
- ^ Edwards, Roger (6 March 2020). "Historical Tornadoes". The Online Tornado FAQ. Norman, Oklahoma: Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
- ^ a b Kutschenreuter & Fox 1965, p. 3
- ^ Grazulis 2001a, pp. 34, 46.
- ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 239.
- ^ Deadliest Indiana tornado outbreak on this date in 1965, Fox59, April 12, 2022
- ^ Grazulis 2001a, p. 243.
Sources
- Bontranger, Timothy E. (2005). The Palm Sunday Tornado. Instantpublisher.com. ISBN 978-1591969648.
- .
- Cherry, Dan (2002). Night of the Wind: The Palm Sunday Tornado of April 11, 1965 (Report). Adrian, Michigan: Lenawee County Historical Society.
- Clem, Dale (1997). Winds of fury, circles of grace: life after the Palm Sunday tornadoes. ISBN 0-687-01795-5.
- Cook, A. R.; Schaefer, J. T. (August 2008). "The Relation of El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to Winter Tornado Outbreaks". .
- E. S. Epstein; G. A. Petersen; H. Lieb; J. Davies; et al. (December 1974). The Widespread Tornado Outbreak of April 3-4, 1974: A Report to the Administrator (PDF). NWS Service Assessments (Report). Natural Disaster Survey Report. Rockville, Maryland: United States Department of Commerce. p. 18. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
...warning offices issued 'blanket' warnings because they knew severe storms were in the area, although they did not know the exact location, extent, and movement of the storms.
- .
- Grazulis, Thomas P. (November 1990). Significant Tornadoes 1880–1989. Vol. 2. ISBN 1-879362-02-3.
- Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
- Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001a). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. ISBN 978-0-8061-3538-0.
- Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001b). F5-F6 Tornadoes. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films.
- P. H. Kutschenreuter; R. Fox (1965). Report of Palm Sunday tornadoes of 1965 (PDF). NWS Service Assessments (Report). Natural Disaster Survey Report. Washington, D.C.: National Weather Service. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- National Weather Service (April 1965). "Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena". Storm Data. 7 (4). Asheville, North Carolina: National Climatic Data Center.
- National Weather Service (April 1965). Storm Data Publication (Report). National Centers for Environmental Information – via Storm Events Database.
- Neal, Lott; Sam McCown; Tom Ross (August 2000) [1999]. 1998-1999 Tornadoes and a Long-Term U.S. Tornado Climatology (PDF) (Technical report). National Climatic Data Center Technical Report. Asheville, North Carolina: National Climatic Data Center. 99-02.
- King, Marshall (April 10, 2005). "One for the books". Elkhart Truth. Elkhart, Indiana.
- Pickenpaugh, Roger (2003). The Night of the Wicked Winds: the 1965 Palm Sunday tornadoes in Ohio. ISBN 0-9709059-3-9.
- Wagler, David (1966). The Mighty Whirlwind. LCCN 67112646.