1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
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1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo | |
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Volcano | Mount Pinatubo |
Start date | April 2, 1991[1] |
End date | September 2, 1991[1] |
Type | Phreatic, Ultra-Plinian |
Location | Zambales Mountains, Central Luzon, Philippines 15°08′30″N 120°21′00″E / 15.14167°N 120.35000°E |
VEI | 6[1] |
Impact |
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History of the Philippines |
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Timeline |
Philippines portal |
The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the
On June 12, the volcano's first spectacular eruption sent an ash column 19 km (12 mi) into the atmosphere. Additional explosions occurred overnight and the morning of June 13. Seismic activity during this period became intense. When even more highly gas-charged magma reached Pinatubo's surface on June 15, the volcano exploded, sending an ash cloud 40 km (25 mi) into the atmosphere. Volcanic ash and pumice blanketed the countryside. Huge pyroclastic flows roared down the flanks of Pinatubo, filling once-deep valleys with fresh volcanic deposits as much as 200 m (660 ft) thick. The eruption removed so much magma and rock from beneath the volcano that the summit collapsed to form a small caldera 2.5 km (1.6 mi) across.[4]
Fine ash from the eruption fell as far away as the Indian Ocean and satellites tracked the ash cloud as it traveled several times around the globe. At least 16 commercial jets inadvertently flew through the drifting ash cloud, sustaining about $100 million in damage. With the ashfall came darkness and the sounds of lahars rumbling down nearby river valleys. Several smaller lahars washed through the Clark Air Base, flowing across the base in enormously powerful sheets, slamming into buildings and scattering cars. Nearly every bridge within 30 km (19 mi) of Mount Pinatubo was destroyed. Several lowland towns were flooded or partially buried in mud. More than 840 people were killed from the collapse of roofs under wet heavy ash and several more were injured.[4]
Rain continued to create hazards over the next several years, as the volcanic deposits were remobilized into secondary mudflows. Damage to bridges, irrigation-canal systems, roads, cropland, and urban areas occurred in the wake of each significant rainfall. Many more people were affected for much longer by rain-induced lahars than by the eruption itself.[4]
Build-up and evacuations
On July 16, 1990, a
Two weeks after the earthquake, local residents reported steam coming from the volcano, but scientists who visited there in response found only small rockslides rather than any pre-eruptive activity. On March 15, 1991, a succession of earthquakes were felt by villagers on the northwestern side of the volcano. Further earthquakes of increasing intensity were felt over the next two weeks, and it became clear some kind of volcanic activity was likely.
On April 2, the volcano woke up, with phreatic eruptions occurring near the summit along a 1.5 km (0.93 mi) long
Volcanic activity increased throughout May. Measurements of sulfur dioxide emissions showed a rapid increase from 500 t (550 short tons) per day by May 13 to 5,000 t (5,500 short tons) per day by May 28.[9][8] This implied that there was a rising column of fresh magma beneath the volcano. After May 28, the amount of SO
2 being emitted decreased substantially, raising fears that the degassing of the magma had been blocked somehow, leading to a pressure build-up in the magma chamber and a high likelihood of violent explosive eruptions.
In early June, tiltmeter measurements had shown that the volcano was gradually inflating, evidently due to fast-growing amounts of magma filling the reservoir beneath the summit. At the same time, seismic activity, previously concentrated at a depth of a few kilometers below a point about 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) northwest of the summit, shifted to shallow depths just below the summit. Such an event is a precursor of volcano tectonic earthquakes.
Given all the signs that a very large eruption was imminent, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology – assisted by the United States Geological Survey – worked to convince local inhabitants of the high severity of the threat. A false warning might have led to cynicism about any later warnings, but delaying a warning until an eruption began might lead to thousands of deaths, so the volcanologists were under some pressure to deliver a timely and accurate assessment of the volcanic risk.[10]
Three successive evacuation zones were defined, the innermost containing everything within 10 km (6.2 mi) of the volcano's summit, the second extending 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) from the summit, and the third extending from 20–40 km (12–25 mi) from the summit (Clark Air Base and Angeles City were in this zone).[10] The 10 km (6.2 mi) and 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) zones had a total population of about 40,000 inhabitants, while some more 331,000 inhabitants lived in the 20–40 km (12–25 mi) zone.
Five stages of volcanic alert were defined, from level 1 (low level seismic disturbances) up to level 5 (major eruption in progress). Daily alerts were issued stating the alert level and associated danger area, and the information was announced in major regional and national
Many of the
On June 7, the first magmatic eruptions took place with the formation of a lava dome at the summit of the volcano. The dome grew substantially over the next five days, reaching a maximum diameter of about 200 m (660 ft) and a height of 40 m (130 ft).
Escalation of eruption
A small blast at 03:41 PST on June 12 marked the beginning of a new, more violent phase of the eruption. A few hours later the same day, massive blasts lasting about half an hour generated big eruption columns, which quickly reached heights of over 19 kilometres (62,000 ft) and which generated large pyroclastic surges extending up to four kilometres (2.5 mi) from the summit in some river valleys. Fourteen hours later, a 15-minute blast hurled volcanic matter to heights of 24 km (15 mi). Friction in the up-rushing ash column generated abundant volcanic lightning.
A third large eruption began at 08:41 on June 13, after an intense swarm of small earthquakes over the previous two hours. It lasted about five minutes, and the eruption column once again reached 24 km (15 mi). After three hours of quiet, seismic activity began, growing more and more intense over the next twenty-four hours, until a three-minute eruptive blast generated a 21 km (13 mi) high eruption column at 13:09 on June 14.
Tephra fall from these four large eruptions was extensive to the southwest of the volcano. Two hours after the last of these four explosions, a series of eruptions began which lasted for the next twenty-four hours, and which saw the production of much larger pyroclastic flows and surges which travelled several kilometres down river valleys on the flanks of the volcano.
Dacite was the dominant igneous rock making up the tephra in these eruptions and in the following climactic event. The most abundant phenocryst minerals were hornblende and plagioclase, but an unusual phenocryst mineral was also present – the calcium sulfate called anhydrite. The dacite magma was more oxidized than most magmas, and the sulfur-rich nature of the eruption was probably causally related to the redox state.[citation needed]
The final, climactic eruption of Mount Pinatubo began at 13:42 PST on June 15. It caused numerous major earthquakes due to the collapse of the summit and the creation of a caldera 2.5 km (1.6 mi) in diameter, reducing the peak from 1,745 m (5,725 ft) to 1,486 m (4,875 ft).[11]
All the seismographs close to
On the same day, Typhoon Yunya, locally named Diding, struck the island, with its center passing about 75 km (47 mi) north of the volcano. The typhoon rains mostly obscured the eruption, but measurements showed that ash was ejected to a height of 34 km (21 mi) by the most violent phase of the eruption, which lasted about three hours. Pyroclastic surges poured from the summit, reaching as far as 16 km (9.9 mi) away from their origin point. Typhoon rains and flooding, mixed with the ash deposits, caused a messy rain of mud and massive lahars.
The volcanic column from the crater covered an area of some 125,000 km2 (48,000 sq mi), bringing total darkness to much of Central Luzon for 36 hours. Almost all of the island received some wet ash fall, which formed a heavy, rain-saturated snow-like blanket. Tephra fell over most of the South China Sea and ash falls were recorded as far away as Vietnam, Cambodia, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Twelve days after the first magmatic eruptions of June 3, on June 15, 1991, by about 22:30, and about nine hours after the onset of the most recent climactic phase, atmospheric pressure waves had decreased to the pre-eruption levels. No seismic records were available at this time, but volcanologists believe 22:30 PST marked the end of the climactic eruption.
Vast quantities of light and heavy metal minerals were brought to the surface. Overall an estimated 800,000 t (880,000 short tons) of zinc-, 600,000 t (660,000 short tons) of copper-, 550,000 t (610,000 short tons) of chromium-, 300,000 t (330,000 short tons) of nickel-, and massive amounts of potentially toxic heavy metal mineral such as 100,000 t (110,000 short tons) of lead-, 10,000 t (11,000 short tons) of arsenic-, 1,000 t (1,100 short tons) of cadmium-, and 800 t (880 short tons) of mercury-minerals comingled with the other magmatic rock, came forth.[12]
Effects on aircraft
At least 16 commercial aircraft had damaging in-flight encounters with the ash cloud ejected by the June 15 eruption, and many grounded aircraft were also significantly damaged. In-flight encounters caused loss of power to one engine on each of the two aircraft. Ten engines were damaged and replaced, including all three engines of one
Aftermath
Explosivity of the eruption
The 1991 eruption rated 6 on the
The former summit of the volcano was obliterated and replaced by a caldera 2.5 km (1.6 mi) wide. The highest point on the caldera rim now stood 1,485 m (4,872 ft) above sea level, some 260 m (850 ft) lower than the pre-eruption summit.
Death toll
A reported 847 people were killed by the eruption, mostly by roofs collapsing under a load of accumulated volcanic matter, a hazard amplified by the simultaneous arrival of Typhoon Yunya.[17][18]
The evacuation in the days before the eruption certainly saved tens of thousands of lives, and has been hailed as a great success for volcanology and eruption prediction.
After the eruption, about 500,000 people continue to live within 40 km (25 mi) of the volcano, with population centers including the 150,000 in
Effects on agriculture
Many reforestation projects were destroyed in the eruption, with a total area of 150 km2 (58 sq mi; 37,000 acres) valued at 125 million pesos destroyed. Agriculture was heavily disrupted, with 800 km2 (310 sq mi; 200,000 acres) of rice-growing farmland destroyed, and almost 800,000 head of livestock and poultry killed, destroying the livelihoods of thousands of farmers. The cost to agriculture of eruption effects was estimated to be 1.5 billion pesos.
Many farmers near Pinatubo began growing quick-ripening crops such as peanuts, cassava, and sweet potatoes, which could be harvested before the threat of lahar floods during the late summer rainy season.[19]
Local economic and social effects
In total, 364 communities and 2.1 million people were affected by the eruption, with livelihoods and houses being damaged and destroyed. More than 8,000 houses were destroyed, and a further 73,000 were damaged. In addition to the severe damage sustained by these communities, roads and communications were damaged or destroyed by pyroclastic surges and lahar floods throughout the areas surrounding the volcano. Total losses in 1991 and 1992 alone were estimated at 10.6 and 1.2 billion pesos respectively, including damage to public infrastructure estimated at 3.8 billion pesos (c. US$92 million, or $175 million today, adjusted for inflation). School classes for thousands of children was temporarily suspended by the destruction of schools in the eruption.[20]
The eruption of Pinatubo severely hampered the economic development of the surrounding areas. The gross regional domestic product of the Pinatubo area accounted for about 10% of the total Philippine gross domestic product. The GRDP had been growing at 5% annually before the eruption but fell by more than 3% from 1990 to 1991. In 1991, damage to crops and property was estimated at $374 million (or $711 million today), to which continuing lahar floods added a further $69 million (or $127 million today) in 1992. In total, 42 percent of the cropland around the volcano was affected by more lahar floods, dealing a severe blow to the agricultural economy in the region.[19]
Lahars
Since the eruption, each heavy rain has brought massive lahars from the volcano, displacing thousands of people and inflicting extensive damage to buildings and
Several important river systems stem from Mount Pinatubo, the major rivers being the Tarlac, Abacan, Pasig-Potrero, Sta. Lucia, Bucao, Santo Tomas, Maloma, Tanguay, Ashley and Kileng rivers. Before the eruption, these river systems were important ecosystems, but the eruption filled many valleys with deep pyroclastic deposits. Since 1991, the rivers have been clogged with sediment, and the valleys have seen frequent lahars which continued for years after the eruption. Studies show that the river systems will take decades to recover from the June 1991 eruption.
On September 3, 1995, a lahar buried
Military impact
The
Global environmental effects
The powerful eruption of such an enormous volume of lava and ash injected significant quantities of
2 of about 17,000,000 t (19,000,000 short tons) being injected – the largest volume ever recorded by modern instruments (see chart and figure
This very large stratospheric injection resulted in a volcanic winter, a reduction in the normal amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface by roughly 10% (see figure). This led to a decrease in Northern Hemisphere average temperatures of 0.5–0.6 °C (0.9–1.1 °F) and a global decrease of about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F).[22][23] The 1991 eruption also caused the "Summer that Wasn't" in 1992.[24][25][26][27] The extremity of this volcanic winter has been called into question by some, however, with a more conservative estimate of a 0.2 °C decrease in global temperatures for 13 months also being given.[28]
At the same time, the temperature in the stratosphere rose to several degrees higher than normal, due to the absorption of radiation by the aerosol. The stratospheric cloud from the eruption persisted in the atmosphere for three years. The eruption, while not directly responsible, may have played a part in the formation of the 1993 Storm of the Century.[29]
The eruption had a significant effect on
Aeta people
The Aeta people were the hardest hit by the eruption. After the areas surrounding the volcano were declared safe, many Aetas returned to their old villages only to find them destroyed by pyroclastic and lahar deposits. Some were able to return to their former way of life, but most moved instead to government-organized resettlement areas. Conditions on these were poor, with each family receiving only small plots of land not ideal for growing crops. Many Aeta found casual labor working for lowland farmers, and overall Aeta society became much more fragmented, and reliant on and integrated with lowland culture.[31]
Humanitarian aid
Local
Government
The government implemented several rehabilitative and reconstructive programs. Projects that will help deal with the aftermath brought about by lahar were also implemented. Among these is the construction of mega dikes. Moreover, to hasten the implementation of the basic services for the afflicted, private sectors, including the NGOs, took part in offering relief. They provided support and coordinated on the services that were deemed lacking from the side of the government.[32]
1. Resettlement
For whom | Amount (in pesos) |
---|---|
Highlanders (Aetas) | 349 million |
Lowlanders | 1.689 billion |
2. Livelihood programs focused on agriculture and industry (quick-generating income opportunities to affected families)
Program | Amount (in pesos) |
---|---|
Bamboo Development Project | 80 million |
Agricultural Rehabilitation Program | 197.4 million |
Agricultural Development Program | 615 million |
Productivity Centers | 1.12 Billion |
Integrated Cattle Fattening Program | 120 million |
Integrated Poultry Livelihood Program | 40 million |
Deep Sea Fishing | 58 million |
Financing Programs | 3.718 billion |
3. Basic social services
Program | Amount (in pesos) |
---|---|
Relief Services | 370.5 million |
Health and Nutrition Service | 367 million |
Agricultural Development Program | 615 million |
4. Infrastructure rehabilitation and reconstruction
Program | Amount (in pesos) |
---|---|
River Systems Rehabilitation and Improvement Project | 2.9 billion |
Reconstruction and Rehabilitation of Roads and Bridges | 1.5 billion |
Development of Alternate Routes in Capas-Botolan Road | 537 million |
San Fernando Dinalupihan Road | 1.4 billion |
Angeles-Porac-Floridablanca Dinalupihan Road | 169 million |
Rehabilitation of Damaged Schools and Public Buildings | 982 million |
Mobile Health Facilities | 40 million |
Repair and Rehabilitation of Damaged National and Communal Irrigation Systems | 228.6 million |
Rehabilitation of Railway Facilities | 70 million |
Asian Disaster Reduction Center
The Asian Disaster Reduction Center was founded in Kobe, Hyogo prefecture, in 1998, with a mission to improve
Resettlement
After the eruption, many of the homes were destroyed and many of the areas affected by lahar were deemed uninhabitable. There was need to resettle the people particularly the Aetas and lowlanders. Resettlement for these two needs to take into consideration the factors of their socio-cultural and socioeconomic differences.
-
Madapdap Resettlement Center inMabalacat, Pampanga
-
Bulaon Resettlement Center in San Fernando, Pampanga
-
Pandacaqui Resettlement Center in Mexico, Pampanga
-
Pio Model Community inPorac, Pampanga
-
Dapdap Resettlement Center inBamban, Tarlac
Livelihood
Faced with the destruction of many of the farmlands and the displacement of farmers and other workers the government had to search for a long-term solution to address the issue. Agricultural-based industries were also greatly affected. The closure of Clark Air base also raised an issue of finding short-term livelihoods and the need to use the base lands to cushion the repercussions of the worker's displacement.
Social services
The destruction brought about by the incident pressured social service sectors to continue their efforts in assisting in terms of health, social welfare, and education. The services offered are not limited to the victims within the evacuation centers but also offered to the others affected. While the event happened during the opening of a school year, classes were needed to be pushed back as school facilities were destroyed. Providing resettlement for the evacuees was also a major concern. Social services were also provided in the prospective resettlement areas to prepare the victims when settling down.
Infrastructure
Destruction of many infrastructures was mostly due to the wet ash after the explosion. The region's roads, bridges, public buildings, facilities, communication, and structures for river and flood control were some of the great concerns of the government. A need to establish measures for the flash floods and the threat caused by lahar also became an imperative demand to the government.
Land use and environmental management
The aftereffects of the eruption damaged not only man-made structures but also farmlands, forestlands, and watersheds. River systems and the overall environment of the affected region are also heavily damaged by the heavy lahar flow. To address this careful replanning of the land area region is necessary.
Science and technology
This event showed the need to engage in scientific studies to reassess the current policies and knowledge on areas with risk of eruption. Studies should also be allocated on a possible application for the ash fall for industrial and commercial purposes. The significance of this concern affects both the government and private sectors.
International
Even before the Philippine government officially appealed for international assistance, the
It was not until then-President Fidel V. Ramos had declared the affected provinces and areas to be in a state of emergency that the national government officially requested for international assistance and for aid in projects for rehabilitation and relief provisions in the aforementioned areas. In response to this, the DHA/UNDRO reached out to the international community to respond to the appeal, and continued their operations, coordinating with the government.[33]
Among the countries that extended humanitarian relief assistance were Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, Malta, Myanmar, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. International organizations including the United Nations Development Programme (
United Nations
Contributions made by the different systems of the United Nations (UN) are as follows:[34]
UN system | Type of contribution | Amount (in USD) |
---|---|---|
United Nations Development Program (UNDP) | Cash for local purposes | 50,000 |
United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) | Cash from regular programme funds | 72,000 |
Cash from general resources | 150,000 | |
World Health Organization (WHO) | One emergency health kit | 10,000 |
World Food Programme (WFP) | Food items | 50,000 |
Contributions made by participating countries in the UN are as follows:
Country | Type of contribution | Amount (in USD) |
---|---|---|
Australia | Food, relief goods, medicines, and medicinal supplies | 7,142 |
Cash (AU$250,000) through Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) | 178,571 | |
Denmark | Cash (DK 250,000) | 45,872 |
Germany | Cash (DM 100,000) through non-government organization (NGO) | 70,922 |
Cash (DM 100,000) through German Embassy) | 70,922 | |
Netherlands | Cash through UNICEF | 675,000 |
Spain | 40 tents, 100 kits of kitchen utensils (including air transport) | 54,644 |
Sweden | Cash (SEK 500,000) through non-government organization | 97,087 |
United Kingdom | Cash through SCF/Philippine Business for Social Progress (NGO) | 89,108 |
United States | Cash | 25,000 |
1,000 boxes plastic sheeting (including air transport) | 726,800 | |
Cash through Philippine Business for Social Progress | 189,000 | |
Cash through Jamie Ongpin Foundation | 175,000 | |
Cash through A. Soriano Foundation | 262,500 |
Others
Some specific projects under the auspices of the DPWH, which were made possible by foreign assistance, included:[32]
- ADB-funded Mt. Pinatubo Damage Rehabilitation Project
- German Bank for Reconstruction-funded Mt. Pinatubo Emergency Aide Project
- Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)-funded Mt. Pinatubo Relief and Rehab Project
- USAID-funded United States Army Corps of Engineers' Mt. Pinatubo recovery action
- Dutch-funded dredging of the Pasac- Guagua-San Fernando Waterway
- Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund (OECF)-funded Pinatubo Hazard Urgent Mitigation Project
- German Centrum for International Migration (CIM)-funded technical assistance for Mount Pinatubo Emergency-PMO
- JICA-funded grant aid for water supply in Mt. Pinatubo resettlement areas and study on flood and mudflow control for Sacobia Bamban/Abacan Rivers
- IBRD-funded technical assistance for Mt. Pinatubo and Rehabilitation Works
- Swiss Disaster Relief-funded technical assistance for Mt. Pinatubo Rehabilitation
- JBIC Yen Loan Package-funded Pinatubo hazard Urgent Mitigation Project
In popular culture
The eruption is featured in volcano and disaster documentaries:
- Nova: "In the Path of a Killer Volcano" (PBS, 1993)[35]
- Volcano: Nature's Inferno (National Geographic, 1997)[36]
- Pinoy True Stories: Red Alert (ABS-CBN, 2014–15)[37]
- Earth's Fury (Anatomy of Disaster in the United States): "Volcano" (GRB Studios, 1997)[38]
- Mega Disaster (NHNZ, 2006)[39]
- Savage Earth: "Out of the Inferno" (PBS and ITV, 1998)[40]
- The Amazing Video Collection: Natural Disasters (1996, direct-to-video)[41]
- Limang Dekada: The GMA News 50th Anniversary Special (a GMA News and Public Affairs during its 50th anniversary in 2010)[42]
- Sa Mata ng Balita (a television special produced by ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs during its 50th anniversary in 2003)[43]
- Surviving the Eruption at Pinatubo (National Geographic Channel, 2006)[44]
- Volcano (1997 film, mentioned)[citation needed]
- Bayani (ABS-CBN)[45][46][verification needed]
See also
- List of volcanoes in the Philippines
- List of large volcanic eruptions of the 20th century
- List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
- Volcanic winter (a recent one having been caused by this eruption)
References
- ^ a b c "Pinatubo". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved January 21, 2020.
- ^ "The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines". U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 113-97. U.S. Geologic Survey. 1997.
- ^ Rosenberg, Matt (August 5, 2007). "The Volcanic Mount Pinatubo Eruption of 1991 that Cooled the Planet". About.com Geography. Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ a b c d Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey (June 13, 2016). "Remembering Mount Pinatubo 25 Years Ago: Mitigating a Crisis". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved January 27, 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ USGS. "Earthquake Information for 1990". Archived from the original on December 6, 2009. Retrieved March 6, 2010.
- ^ "USGS Earthquake Magnitude Policy". Archived from the original on May 4, 2016.
- ^ Factoran, Fulgencio Jr. S. (2001). "The July 16 Luzon Earthquake: A Technical Monograph". Inter-Agency Committee for Documenting and Establishing Database on the July 1990 Earthquake. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. Archived from the original on September 7, 2008. Retrieved January 7, 2009.
- ^ a b "Chronology of the 1991 Pinatubo eruption, Philippines". Volcano Discovery. Archived from the original on May 28, 2012. Retrieved July 10, 2019.
- ISBN 9781848262461. Retrieved July 10, 2019.
- ^ ISBN 9780080547985. Retrieved July 10, 2019.
- ^ Mount Pinatubo Eruption – By Matt Rosenberg Geography Expert. http://geography.about.com/od/globalproblemsandissues/a/pinatubo.htm[permanent dead link]
- S2CID 97001667.
- ^ "In 1991, it was Pinatubo". Philippine Daily Inquirer. April 17, 2010. Archived from the original on April 17, 2015.
- ^ Philippine Air Force. "Philippine Air Force: F-8 Crusader". Philippine Air Force. Archived from the original on June 25, 2007. Retrieved November 10, 2013.
- ^ "Mt. Pinatubo, Luzon, Philippines". National Geophysical Data Center (U.S. NOAA). Retrieved December 2, 2007.
- ^ "Infrasonic and Acoustic-Gravity Waves Generated by the Mount Pinatubo Eruption of June 15, 1991 - pubs.usgs.gov". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved July 27, 2023.
- ^ "Mount Pinatubo – the impacts of".
- ^ "Ashfall, Pyroclastic Flow, Lahar: The Aftermath". Pinatubu Volcano: The Sleeping Giant Awakens. expo.edu.ph. Archived from the original on July 26, 2011.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7864-3655-2.
- ISBN 978-0-521-59254-3.
- '^ Zingheim, Karl (February 25, 2019). "Midways Operation Fiery Vigil". USS 'Midway' Museum. Retrieved June 15, 2021.
- ^ "Mt. Pinatubo's cloud shades global climate". Science News. Retrieved March 7, 2010.
- .
- ^ The Summer That Wasn't – weather.gov
- New York Times, August 4, 1992
- ^ The bummer of a summer that was 1992, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Archived
- WDIV-DT, June 20, 2018
- ISSN 1364-6826. Retrieved March 3, 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
- ^ Stevens, William (March 14, 1993). "The Blizzard of '93: Meteorology; 3 Disturbances Became a Big Storm". The New York Times. Retrieved July 29, 2014.
- ^ "Adiabatic Change and Cloud Formation". STEM Education Institute. Archived from the original (MS Word) on February 24, 2021. Retrieved January 21, 2020.
- ^ Shimizu, Hiromu (2002), Struggling for Existence after the Pinatubo Eruption 1991: Catastrophe, Suffering and Rebirth of Ayta Communities. Paper presented inter-congress of the International Union of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Tokyo, Japan. Retrieved from the original on August 15, 2004.
- ^ a b c d Eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in June 1991
- ^ a b c "Philippines Mt Pinatubo Volcanic Eruption Aug 1992 UN DHA Situation Reports 1-8 - Philippines | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. August 20, 1992.
- ^ "Philippines Mt Pinatubo Volcanic Eruption Aug 1992 UN DHA Situation Reports 1–8". ReliefWeb. August 20, 1992. Retrieved July 8, 2017.
- ^ "In the Path Of a Killer Volcano". Nova. Season 20. February 9, 1993. PBS. Archived from the original on November 1, 2020. Retrieved October 5, 2020.
- ^ Volcano Nature's Inferno (Documentary). Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Television. 1997. Archived from the original on February 25, 2020. Retrieved February 25, 2020 – via SnagFilms.
- YouTube
- ^ "Volcano". Anatomy of Disaster. Season 1. Episode 4. 1997. GRB Entertainment/The Learning Channel. Archived from the original on December 20, 2021. Retrieved October 5, 2020 – via YouTube.
- YouTube
- ^ "Savage Earth: Out of the Inferno". WNET. Retrieved February 25, 2020.
- ^ The Amazing Video Collection: Natural Disasters (Documentary). Langley Productions. 1996.
- GMA News and Public Affairs. January 10, 2010. Archivedfrom the original on December 20, 2021. Retrieved October 29, 2020 – via YouTube.
- ^ Sa Mata ng Balita (Television special). Philippines: ABS-CBN News and Current Affairs. October 12, 2003.
- ^ Surviving the Eruption at Pinatubo (Television documentary). National Geographic Channel. 2006. Archived from the original on December 20, 2021. Retrieved June 22, 2021 – via YouTube.
- iWant. Archived from the originalon July 2, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
- ^ "084 - Bayani". IWant. Archived from the original on July 3, 2020. Retrieved July 1, 2020.
Further reading
- Gaillard, Jean-Christophe (December 2006). "Was it a cultural disaster? Aeta resilience following the 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption". Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 34 (4): 376–399. JSTOR 29792602.