1994 Winter Olympics
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Cauldron | |
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Stadium | Lysgårdsbakken |
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1994 Winter Olympics |
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The 1994 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVII Olympic Winter Games (
Although Lillehammer was the main host city, some events were held in neighboring cities and counties, and the speed skating events were held in
Fourteen countries made their Olympic debuts, of which nine were formerHost city selection
The idea for an Olympic bid for Norway was born in 1981, when Falun, in neighbouring Sweden was defeated by Calgary in Canada to host the 1988 Winter Olympics. Along with the Norwegian government, the bid was also publicly encouraged and supported by the Swedish government, largely to help stimulate the economy of their inland counties.[2] Lillehammer originally bid for the 1992 Games but came fourth in the voting, with the Games ultimately awarded to Albertville, France.[3] In 1985, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) voted to separate the Summer and Winter Games (which had been held in the same year since the inception of the Winter Olympics in 1924) and arrange for them to take place in alternating even-numbered years.[4] Lillehammer subsequently launched another bid, now for the 1994 Games, with some drastic modifications of the project, such as a new indoor speed skating venue and an additional ice hall in Lillehammer. Supplementary government guarantees and funds were secured for the new bid.[5]
Three other locations put in bids for the 1994 Games: Anchorage (United States), Östersund (Sweden), and Sofia (Bulgaria). Lillehammer was elected to host the 1994 Winter Games at the 94th IOC Session, held in Seoul on 15 September 1988, two days before the start of the 1988 Summer Olympics.[6] Until 2018, the Lillehammer Games were the last Winter Olympics to be held in a town, rather than centered in a city.
City | Country | Round 1 | Round 2 | Round 3 |
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Lillehammer | Norway | 25 | 30 | 45 |
Östersund | Sweden | 19 | 33 | 39 |
Anchorage | United States | 23 | 22 | — |
Sofia | Bulgaria | 17 | — | — |
Organization
The overall responsibility for the games was held by the Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee, which was created on 14 November 1988 and led by
Production and execution of the broadcasting, which costs NOK 462 million,
NOK 460 million was used on information technology,[16] with the main system running on an IBM AS/400.[17] 3,500 media terminals were in use during the games based on the Info '94 system; it was the first Winter Olympics to have terminals installed abroad.[16] Seiko delivered the time-keeping devices.[18] Telecommunications were delivered by Telenor, including signal transmission.[19] This included a mobile radio network with nine base stations.[20]
Cost and cost overrun
The Oxford Olympics Study established the outturn cost of the Lillehammer 1994 Winter Olympics at US$2.2 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 277% in real terms.[21] This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i) operational costs incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) direct capital costs incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs are not included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Lillehammer 1994 compares with costs of US$2.5 billion and a cost overrun of 13% for Vancouver 2010, and costs of US$51[22] billion and a cost overrun of 289% for Sochi 2014, the latter being the most costly Olympics to date. Average cost for Winter Games since 1960 is US$3.1 billion, average cost overrun is 142%.
Events
There were 61 events contested in 6 sports (12 disciplines).
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Opening ceremony
In a change from previous Games, the Organizing Committee decided not to build a specific Olympic Stadium for the opening and closing ceremonies and opted to take them to the ski jumping hill
Alpine skiing
Since the 1992 Games, the rules for combined changed, where the winner was determined by total time instead of points. The
In the women's events, Switzerland's Vreni Schneider was the most successful, winning the slalom, taking silver in combined and taking bronze in giant slalom. The only other athlete to take multiple medals was Italy's Isolde Kostner, who took a third place in both downhill and super-G. The downhill was won by Germany's Katja Seizinger, super-G by the United States' Diann Roffe, the giant slalom by Italy's Deborah Compagnoni, and the combined by Sweden's Pernilla Wiberg.[27]
Biathlon
Russia and Germany split all the individual men's medals. In the 10 km sprint, Russia's Sergei Tchepikov won ahead of Ricco Groß, both with a clean sheet.[28] Bronze winner Sergei Tarasov won the 20 km individual ahead of Germany's Frank Luck and Sven Fischer.[29] Germany easily revenged itself by winning the 4 × 7.5 km relay ahead of Russia and France.[30] In the women's class, Canada's Myriam Bédard won both the individual events, finishing ahead of Belarus' Svetlana Paramygina on the 7.5 km sprint and ahead of France's Anne Briand on the 15 km individual.[29] In the 4 × 7.5 km relay, the format since 1992 was changed from three to four participants. Russia, with a clean sheet, won ahead of Germany, who made six misses, with France taking the bronze.[31]
Bobsleigh
In two-man, Switzerland took the top two places, with Gustav Weder, Donat Acklin winning 0.05 seconds ahead of Reto Götschi and Guido Acklin, who were again 0.15 seconds ahead of Italy's Günther Huber and Stefano Ticci placing third.[32] In four-man, Germany-II, consisting of Harald Czudaj, Karsten Brannasch, Olaf Hampel and Alexander Szelig, finished 0.06 seconds ahead of Switzerland-I and 0.23 ahead of Germany-I.[33]
Cross-country skiing
Participants from five countries took all the medals of the ten events. Starting in 1994, the Olympics alternated which of the medium-distance and long-distance races had classical and freestyle. men's 4 × 10 km relay was watched by a crowd of nearly 150,000. Norway, Italy and Finland followed each other tightly for three and a half rounds, with the second and third exchange of the three talking place within 1.1 seconds of each other. Finland fell behind in the end, and Norwegian Bjørn Dæhlie and Italian Silvio Fauner battled to the end, with Italy beating Norway by 0.4 seconds.[34] Dæhlie won the 10 km classical and 15 km freestyle pursuit, while taking silver in the 30 km freestyle. Kazakhstan's Vladimir Smirnov won the 50 km classical, in addition to silver in the 10 km and the 15 km. Norway's Thomas Alsgaard won the 30 km, while Finland's Mika Myllylä took an individual silver and a bronze.[35]
Italy's
Figure skating
On 6 January,
Freestyle skiing
Aerials was added as a discipline, after it had been a demonstration sport at the previous two games. Ski ballet, which had been a demonstration sport in 1992, was dropped.[43] Canada dominated the men's events, with Jean-Luc Brassard winning the men's moguls ahead of Russian Sergey Shupletsov.[44] In the men's aerials, Switzerlands's Andreas Schönbächler won ahead of Canada's Philippe LaRoche and Lloyd Langlois, with Canadians also claiming the fourth and sixth places.[45] In the women's disciplines, Norway was the only nation to take two medals; Stine Lise Hattestad won the moguls ahead of the United States' Liz McIntyre.[46] In the aerials, Lina Cheryazova won, claiming Uzbekistan's only medal,[47] ahead of Sweden's Marie Lindgren and Norway's Hilde Synnøve Lid.[48]
Ice hockey
Twelve teams participated in the ice hockey tournament, divided into two groups. Each played as a single round robin, with the four best advancing to the single elimination medal tournament.[49] Group A saw Finland win all five matches, while the host nation lost all theirs. Also Germany, the Czech Republic and Russia advanced from the group, all with three victories. Group B was won by Slovakia ahead of Canada, Sweden and the United States.[50] The quarter-finals saw the Czech Republic, the United States, Germany and Slovakia eliminated.[51] In the semi-finals, Canada beat Finland 5–3, while Sweden beat Russia 4–3.[52] After the final period of the final, the match was a 2–2 tie, resulting in a shoot-out. After six shots, it was tied 2–2 until Sweden's Peter Forsberg beat Corey Hirsch, making the Swedes win after Paul Kariya missed his shot. This led to Tomas Jonsson, Håkan Loob and Mats Näslund becoming the first three members of the Triple Gold Club.[53]
Luge
Italy, Germany and Austria collected all the medals in the luge events. Germany's Georg Hackl won the men's singles, making him the first to defend an Olympic title in the event in thirty years. He finished ahead of Austria's Markus Prock and Italy's Armin Zöggeler. In the doubles, the two Italian teams finished on top, with Kurt Brugger and Wilfried Huber winning ahead of Hansjörg Raffl and Norbert Huber. In the women's singles, Italy's Gerda Weissensteiner won ahead of Germany's Susi Erdmann and Austria's Andrea Tagwerker.[54] The own debuts was start Nedžad Lomigora from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Marco Feder from Liechtenstein, Sminon J. Payne from Bermuda, Paul Hix from United Kingdom, Josef Svarek from Slovakia, Roger White from Australia.
Nordic combined
Although the events were the same, since the 1992 Games there was a rule change so that instead of jumping three times and taking the points for the best two, the competitors only jumped twice. In the individual normal hill/15 km, Japan's Kenji Ogiwara had only lost a single event in the season's World Cup, but came in sixth on the hill, which was won by Norway's Fred Børre Lundberg. He won the event after finishing eight-best in the skiing, ahead of Japan's Takanori Kono, Norway's Bjarte Engen Vik and Ogiwara in fourth.[55] In the team normal hill/3 x 10 km, Japan finished first, third and fifth among the jumpers, giving them a 5:07 minute lead over Norway and finishing 4:49 minutes ahead. Switzerland took the bronze.[56]
Short track speed skating
Short track speed skating was dominated by
In the
Ski jumping
Norway won three of the six individual medals, with Norway's Espen Bredesen winning the normal hill ahead of Norway's Lasse Ottesen and Germany's Dieter Thoma. In the large hill, Germany's Jens Weißflog won ahead of Bredesen and Austria's Andreas Goldberger.[62] In the large hill team, the 1994 Games introduced new rules whereby all four jumps in each round counted, and not just the best three. Neither Norway nor Finland, who between them had won all but one former Olympic team jump, managed to collect a medal. The event became a duel between Germany and Japan, with only a point separating them after the first round of jumps. Masahiko Harada had the last jump, and would secure a gold if he managed 105 meters but lost his 'cool' mistiming his leap and landed at 97.5 meters, giving the gold to the Germans.[63]
Speed skating
Due to a rule change by the International Skating Union in 1989, from this edition onwards, speed skating events at the Winter Olympics would be compulsorily held indoors to avoid interference from wind and weather conditions in the competitions.Along this changes,the 1994 Games introduced a new system ofqualification rules, limiting the number of participants in the
Closing ceremony
At the closing ceremonies, also held at Lysgårdsbakken, all spectators were handed a flashlight with the inscription "Remember Sarajevo"—the host of the
Paralympics
The VI Winter Paralympics were run in part by a different Organizing Committee (LPOC), but the LOOC managed all the common areas of the two events, serving as a model for Sydney that would host the
Venues
The games were spread out over ten venues in five
In Lillehammer,
Spectators relied heavily on the use of buses and trains for transportation. Downtown Lillehammer and the axis between Lillehammer and Oslo were the most limiting areas, and the Norwegian State Railways ran up to 22 trains per day between Oslo and Lillehammer. Trains were also used northwards towards Trondheim, while other areas were served by bus. All the venues were located along railway lines, making use of spectators walking from the stations to the venues to limit road congestion, although special services were available for disabled people. Shuttle buses were established between venues and also connected to park and ride facilities.[81]
Participating National Olympic Committees
A record 67 nations participated in the 1994 Winter Olympics. These Games were the first to implement stricter qualifying standards that prevented low-performing athletes from competing without meeting minimum requirements. As a consequence, eleven "warm-weather countries" that signed up to take part in the Games were mostly absent because very few of their athletes succeeded in qualifying; the number of African athletes fell from nineteen in 1992 to three in 1994. These rules were, however, not applied to bobsled events, enabling the
The former Soviet republics of Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Ukraine and Uzbekistan participated as independent nations. This was the first time since the 1912 Summer Olympics that Russia competed independently at the Olympic Games. Athletes of these countries previously competed in the Winter Olympics as part of the Soviet Union team until 1991. The Czech Republic and Slovakia participated for the first time, after the break-up of Czechoslovakia in 1993. Bosnia and Herzegovina made their Olympic debut, following their independence from Yugoslavia in 1992; the composition of their four-man bob team was one Croat, two Bosniaks and a Serb, mirroring the ethnic diversity of the country. This was also Israel's first appearance at the Winter Olympics and a member of the European Olympic Committees. American Samoa participated for the first time, as did Trinidad and Tobago.
Participating National Olympic Committees |
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Calendar
- All dates are in UTC+1)
OC | Opening ceremony | ● | Event competitions | 1 | Event finals | CC | Closing ceremony |
February 1994 | 12th Sat |
13th Sun |
14th Mon |
15th Tue |
16th Wed |
17th Thu |
18th Fri |
19th Sat |
20th Sun |
21st Mon |
22nd Tue |
23rd Wed |
24th Thu |
25th Fri |
26th Sat |
27th Sun |
Events | |
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Ceremonies | OC | CC | — | |||||||||||||||
Alpine skiing | 1 | ● | 1 | 1 | 1 | ● | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | |||||
Biathlon | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 6 | ||||||||||||
Bobsleigh | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | 2 | |||||||||||||
Cross country skiing | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | ||||||||
Figure skating | ● | 1 | ● | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | 4 | ||||||||
Freestyle skiing | ● | 2 | ● | 2 | 4 | |||||||||||||
Ice hockey | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | ● | 1 | 1 | |
Luge | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | 1 | 3 | ||||||||||||
Nordic combined | ● | 1 | ● | 1 | 2 | |||||||||||||
Short track
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2 | ● | 4 | 6 | ||||||||||||||
Ski jumping | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | ||||||||||||||
Speed skating | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 10 | |||||||
Daily medal events | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 4 | 61 | ||
Cumulative total | 3 | 6 | 9 | 13 | 17 | 20 | 25 | 29 | 33 | 37 | 41 | 46 | 51 | 57 | 61 | |||
February 1994 | 12th Sat |
13th Sun |
14th Mon |
15th Tue |
16th Wed |
17th Thu |
18th Fri |
19th Sat |
20th Sun |
21st Mon |
22nd Tue |
23rd Wed |
24th Thu |
25th Fri |
26th Sat |
27th Sun |
Total events |
Medal table
Russia won the most golds, while Norway won the most medals overall. The following table presents the top ten nations, sorted by gold medals, with the host nation highlighted.[47]
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
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1 | Russia | 11 | 8 | 4 | 23 |
2 | Norway* | 10 | 11 | 5 | 26 |
3 | Germany | 9 | 7 | 8 | 24 |
4 | Italy | 7 | 5 | 8 | 20 |
5 | United States | 6 | 5 | 2 | 13 |
6 | South Korea | 4 | 1 | 1 | 6 |
7 | Canada | 3 | 6 | 4 | 13 |
8 | Switzerland | 3 | 4 | 2 | 9 |
9 | Austria | 2 | 3 | 4 | 9 |
10 | Sweden | 2 | 1 | 0 | 3 |
Totals (10 entries) | 57 | 51 | 38 | 146 |
Podium sweeps
Date | Sport | Event | NOC | Gold | Silver | Bronze |
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13 February | Alpine skiing | Men's combined | Norway | Lasse Kjus | Kjetil André Aamodt
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Harald Christian Strand Nilsen
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Notes
- aurora borealis(northern lights) and snow crystals.
References
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- ^ LOOC (I): 13
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- ^ "Lillehammer 1994". olympic.org. Archived from the original on 5 April 2010. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
- ^ Hove-Ødegård, Celius and Brun: 9
- ^ Hove-Ødegård, Celius and Brun: 6
- ^ "Past Olympic host city election results". GamesBids. Archived from the original on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- ^ a b LOOC (I): 19
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- ^ LOOC (II): 206
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- ^ Seidman, Robert (1 March 2010). "190 million People watched Olympics, 2nd most watched winter Olympics in history". TV By the Numbers. Archived from the original on 24 November 2010. Retrieved 13 December 2010.
- ^ a b LOOC (II): 5
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- ^ "Sochi 2014: the costliest Olympics yet but where has all the money gone?". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
- ^ LOOC (III): 154
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- ^ a b "Alpine Skiing at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Biathlon at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's 10 kilometres Sprint". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 21 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ a b "Biathlon at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 20 December 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Biathlon at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's 4 × 7.5 kilometres Relay". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Biathlon at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Women's 4 × 7.5 kilometres Relay". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ LOOC (IV): 97
- ^ LOOC (IV): 99
- ^ "Cross Country Skiing at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's 4 × 10 kilometres Relay". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 26 February 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ a b "Cross Country Skiing at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Cross Country Skiing at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Women's 4 × 5 kilometres Relay". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ Swift, E. M. (14 February 1994). "Anatomy of a Plot". Sports Illustrated. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
- ^ "Mass Moments: Skater Nancy Kerrigan Assaulted". Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities. Archived from the original on 26 November 2010. Retrieved 13 December 2010.
- ^ LOOC (IV): 148
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- ^ "Figure Skating at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Mixed Ice Dancing". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 27 February 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ LOOC (IV): 145
- ^ "Freestyle Skiing at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ LOOC (IV): 105
- ^ LOOC (IV): 104
- ^ LOOC (IV): 102
- ^ a b LOOC (IV): 65
- ^ LOOC (IV): 103
- ^ "Ice Hockey at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 26 October 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Ice Hockey at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's Ice Hockey Preliminary Round". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 23 July 2012. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Ice Hockey at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's Ice Hockey Quarter-Finals". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 7 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Ice Hockey at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's Ice Hockey Semi-Finals". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 7 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Ice Hockey at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's Ice Hockey". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 7 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Luge at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 5 September 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Nordic Combined at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's Individual". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 21 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Nordic Combined at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's Team". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ a b "Short Track Speed Skating at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 28 January 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Short Track Speed Skating at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's 1,000 metres". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 29 January 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Short Track Speed Skating at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's 5,000 metres Relay". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Short Track Speed Skating at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Women's 500 metres". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 11 August 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Short Track Speed Skating at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games:Women's 3,000 metres Relay". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 26 February 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Ski Jumping at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 31 December 2010. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Ski Jumping at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games: Men's Large Hill, Team". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 1 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ "Speed Skating at the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Games". Sports Reference. Archived from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
- ^ LOOC (III): 161
- ^ LOOC (III): 163
- ^ LOOC (III): 164
- ^ LOOC (III): 166
- ^ "Lillehammer 1994". International Paralympic Committee. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 13 December 2010. Alt URL
- ^ Hove-Ødegård, Celius and Brun: 23
- ^ LOOC (III): 18–22
- ^ LOOC (III): 31–36
- ^ LOOC (III): 23–26
- ^ LOOC (II): 241–242
- ^ LOOC (III): 37–41
- ^ LOOC (III): 27–30
- ^ LOOC (III): 61–64
- ^ LOOC (III): 51–56
- ^ LOOC (III): 57–60
- ^ LOOC (III): 42–50
- ^ LOOC (II): 38–43
- ^ Clarey, Christopher (7 February 1994). "The Tourist Athlete Gets Snowed Out of These Games". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "The United Nations and the Olympic Truce". UN. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- ^ "Lillehammer Has the War in Sarajevo on Its Mind". The New York Times. Reuters. 8 February 1994. Archived from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
External links
External videos | |
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Lillehammer 1994 Winter Olympic Film on YouTube |
- "Lillehammer 1994". Olympics.com. International Olympic Committee.
- Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee. "The Results of the XVII Olympic Winter Games in Lillehammer" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2010.
- The program of the 1994 Lillehammer Winter Olympics
- Hove-Ødegård, Arne; Celius, Sten; Brun, Ivar Ole (2004). "An Olympic Fairy Tale". Lillehammer Municipality. Archived from the original on 12 December 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2010.
- Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee. "1994 Winter Olympics Report, volume I" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
- Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee. "1994 Winter Olympics Report, volume II" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
- Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee. "1994 Winter Olympics Report, volume III" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
- Lillehammer Olympic Organizing Committee. "1994 Winter Olympics Report, volume IV" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2010. Retrieved 10 December 2010.