1995 Aigio earthquake
US$660 million[5] | |
Max. intensity | VIII (Severe)[1][6] IX (Destructive)[7] |
---|---|
Peak acceleration | 0.54 g[8] |
Foreshocks | Many, largest was Mw4.6[9] |
Aftershocks | Thousands, largest was Mw5.6[1][4] |
Casualties | 26 dead, 60–200 injured[8][10] |
An
Monetary damages from the earthquake reached $660 million (in 1995 USD). Significant destruction occurred; the collapse of two buildings left 26 dead and up to 200 injured. In the aftermath, several countries and organizations provided disaster aid, including search and rescue and refugee assistance operations. Many countries also donated medical supplies, temporary shelter, water treatment equipment, and a ship to house survivors. The Greek government issued seismic loans to aid in the rebuilding of Aigio, though it may have encouraged the construction of taller buildings—increasing Aigio's future seismic hazard. Controversy arose over the lack of a warning for the earthquake, as several sources warned officials that a major earthquake would occur.
Tectonic setting
Western Greece is affected by the ongoing back-arc extension within the Aegean Sea Plate caused by the subduction of the African Plate in the Hellenic subduction zone.[11] Stresses in the region create normal faults to accommodate the 10–15 mm (0.39–0.59 in)/yr extensional strain.[4][12] In the Gulf of Corinth, faults have formed as a result of these stresses to accommodate some of the fastest known rates of continental extension.[13] Crustal normal faults do not extend further than 40 km (25 mi) deep in this region, as at that depth the crust transitions to mantle at the Mohorovičić discontinuity.[14]
The Aigion fault is a north-
There are two other major faults near Aigio. The Eliki fault, which runs near the town of Eliki, and the Psathopyrgos fault, which is near the village of Psathopyrgos. The Eliki fault initially developed between 0.7 and 1 million years ago.[19] The fault is split into two segments: the West Eliki and East Eliki faults. The West Eliki fault is 11–13 km (6.8–8.1 mi) long, and has a dip of 60 degrees; the East Eliki fault runs for 9 km (5.6 mi).[18][20] The Psathopyrgos fault is a major fault structure lying at the western end of the Gulf of Corinth. The fault is 8.505 km (5.285 mi) long, 7 km (4.3 mi) deep, has a dip of 60 degrees, and a strike of 87 degrees.[17]
Geology
Before the earthquake struck, strange phenomena were reported in the region. Minutes before the Mw 6.4–6.5
Strong ground motion
This earthquake struck only a few weeks after a devastating Ms 6.6
Surface faulting
The Aigion fault showed detectable surface rupturing of less than 4 cm (1.6 in).
Impact
The shallow depth and strong ground motion contributed to the death toll and monetary costs. The earthquake caused 26 deaths. Sources disagree on the number of injuries; reports soon after the earthquake claimed 60 injuries occurred,
Geological effects
Many surface effects were attributed to this earthquake, including liquefaction, submarine landslides, coastal retreat, and ground fissures. East-west oriented scarp formed from this event in the vicinity of Aigio.[33] Scarps measuring 0.5–1 m (1 ft 8 in – 3 ft 3 in) were observed near the Eliki River Delta.[34] The main shock caused widespread liquefaction to several types of infrastructure. Liquefaction reportedly occurred over a 10 km (6.2 mi) area near the coast between the mouth of the Selinountas River and Cape Trypias.[33] Sand boils formed near Diakofto.[1] In Erateini, liquefaction, underwater landslides, coastal changes, and rockfalls were reported. Along the north coast, liquefaction was sparse, mostly occurring near Erateini. Ground fissures were observed along the coast near Aigio between the Selinountas and Vouraikos rivers, as well as near Avythos. They varied in length up to dozens of meters, with a maximum depth of 60 cm (24 in). These fissures formed as a result of the strong shaking.[33] Sediment failure was found at four sites within a 9 km (5.6 mi) radius of the epicenter.[34]
Drastic coastal changes were observed, such as at
Response
Shortly after the earthquake struck, the
Controversy
Concern arose regarding the lack of an issued earthquake warning for the area by Greece's Earthquake Planning and Protection Agency.
Future hazard
The city of Aigio, and more broadly the Gulf of Corinth, lies atop a large seismogenic zone (100–130 km (62–81 mi) long and 20–40 km (12–25 mi) wide) that accommodates 1–1.5 cm (0.39–0.59 in)/yr of north–south rifting within the Aegean Sea Plate.[11][18][19][41] A network of normal faults have developed to accommodate the deformation, including a series of linked large faults near populated areas such as the Psathopyrgos, Aigion, and Eliki faults.[11][17][18] Many of these faults are in the later stages of their earthquake cycles, and may be ready to produce Mw 6.0–6.7 earthquakes in the coming decades.[18] The Aigio area is struck by Mw 6 events roughly every 120 years, and the area in the southern Gulf of Corinth can generate events up to Mw 6.9 in a multi-fault rupture scenario.[8][18]
On the Psathopyrgos fault, major earthquakes occur at a frequency of every 350 years, with an estimated uncertainty of 175 years. The last known major earthquake to occur on this section of fault struck in 1756, which means that the fault is around 75% of the way through its cycle. Simulations show earthquakes with maximum moment magnitudes up to Mw 6.42 taking place along the fault, and the maximum accumulated slip deficit (amount of built up energy since the last major earthquake) could cause a Mw 6–6.5 event.[17][18] The 1995 Aigio earthquake may have put more strain on the fault, allowing it to slip sooner.[4]
Earthquake activity along the Aigion fault is well documented, with events recorded in 1748, and 1817.[18] The recurrence interval between large ruptures on the Aigion fault is roughly 390 ± 195 years.[17] The eastern portion of the Aigion fault lies near where the Eliki fault slipped in an earthquake in 1861, although the Aigion fault is a few kilometers to the north and may act as a step-over.[4] The fault could rupture with the Psathopyrgos fault to its west and create a Mw 6.42 event, and empirical relations, as well as accumulated slip deficit, suggest a maximum of a Mw 6.5 earthquake.[12][17][18]
The Eliki or Helike faults are responsible for three known major events, occurring in 373 BC, 1861, and 1888. The role of the western fault is unknown, due to the lack of earthquake activity along its western portion.[18] In 373 BC, a strong earthquake, potentially occurring on the Eliki fault, destroyed the ancient city of Helike.[11] In 1861, an Ms 6.6 earthquake struck the area and ruptured 13 km (8.1 mi) of the Eliki fault.[11][42] Maximum observed offset from the event was 220 cm (87 in).[42] In 1888, another event struck, but this time on the western portion of the fault system. It was a magnitude 6-6.6 event with slip of 0.5–1.20 m (1 ft 8 in – 3 ft 11 in). This section of the fault may be close to rupturing, and can produce another earthquake of similar size to the one in 1888.[18] Slip rate is estimated at 2.4–5 mm (0.094–0.197 in)/yr.[19] The accumulated slip deficit on only the western portion of the fault is enough to create a Mw 6.6 earthquake.[18] The 1995 Aigio earthquake may have accommodated some of the stress that the Eliki fault was experiencing, thereby increasing the amount of time until the next major earthquake on the fault.[4]
See also
Notes
References
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- ^ a b c d e f g "M 6.5 - 8 km WNW of Galaxídhion, Greece". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 14 June 2022.
- ^ Del Gaudio, Pierri & Chousianitis 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bernard et al. 1997.
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- ^ Papazachos & Papaioannou 1997.
- ^ a b c d e f Pomonis, Gaspari & Karababa 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Koukouvelas 1998.
- ^ Ravnalis et al. 2022.
- ^ a b c d e Schwarz, Schwarz & Oikonomou 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f McNeill et al. 2005.
- ^ a b Pantosti et al. 2004.
- ^ a b c d De Martini et al. 2004.
- ^ Sachpazi et al. 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f Koukouvelas & Doutsos 1996.
- ^ a b c d McNeill et al. 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Durand et al. 2017.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Bernard et al. 2006.
- ^ a b c Bell et al. 2009.
- ^ Pavlides et al. 2004.
- ^ a b Soter 1999.
- ^ Theriault et al. 2014.
- ^ "M 5.4 - 3 km E of Galaxídhion, Greece". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 11 September 2022.
- ^ Papadopoulos 1997.
- ^ Papanastassiou et al. 1998.
- ^ Mavroeidis, Dang & Moharrami 2018.
- ^ Nitti et al. 2006.
- ^ a b c "Greece - Earthquake Information Report No. 3". reliefweb. United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs. 16 June 1995. Archived from the original on 6 September 2022.
- ^ a b Athanasopoulou, Despoiniadou & Dritsos 2008.
- ^ a b "Greece - Earthquake Information Report No. 4". reliefweb. United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs. 21 June 1995. Archived from the original on 6 September 2022.
- ^ ""Δεν φοβάμαι. Τώρα έγινα άνδρας". Η συγκλονιστική διάσωση του μικρού Ανδρέα στη "χάρτινη" πολυκατοικία του Αιγίου. Τι έκανε τα τέσσερα ποδήλατα που του χάρισαν..." ["I'm not afraid. Now I have become a man." The shocking rescue of little Andreas in the "paper" apartment building of Aigio. What did he do with the four bikes he was given?...]. mixanitouxronou.gr (in Greek). 15 June 2022.
- ^ a b Langhammer et al. 2006.
- ^ a b c d Lekkas et al. 1998.
- ^ a b Papatheodorou & Ferentinos 1997.
- ^ Beckers et al. 2017.
- ^ Papadopoulos & Fokaefs 2005.
- ^ "Greece - Earthquake Information Report No. 1". reliefweb. United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs. 15 June 1995. Archived from the original on 6 September 2022.
- ^ "Greece - Earthquake Information Report No. 2". reliefweb. United Nations Department of Humanitarian Affairs September 2022. 15 June 1995. Archived from the original on 6 September 2022.
- ^ Pomonis et al. 2011.
- ^ Masood 1995.
- ^ Tsimi et al. 2007.
- ^ a b Ambraseys & Jackson 1998.
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Further reading
- Tselentis, G.-A. (1997). "Evidence for stability in coda Q associated with the Egion (central Greece) earthquake of 15 June 1995". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America. 87 (6): 1679–1684. from the original on 29 September 2022.
- Tselentis, G.-A.; Melis, N. S.; Sokos, E.; Papatsimpa, K. (June 1996). "The Egion June 15, 1995 (6.2M L ) earthquake, western Greece". Pure and Applied Geophysics. 147 (1): 83–98. from the original on 29 September 2022.
- Vallianatos, F.; Michas, G.; Papadakis, G.; Sammonds, P. (10 March 2012). "A non-extensive statistical physics view to the spatiotemporal properties of the June 1995, Aigion earthquake (M6.2) aftershock sequence (West Corinth rift, Greece)". Acta Geophysica. 60 (3): 758–768. from the original on 29 September 2022.
External links
- The International Seismological Centre has a bibliography and/or authoritative data for this event.