2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
UTC time | 2004-12-26 00:58:53 |
---|---|
ISC event | 7453151 |
USGS-ANSS | ComCat |
Local date | 26 December 2004[1] |
Local time | |
Duration | 10 minutes |
Magnitude | 9.1–9.3 Mw[2] |
Depth | 30 km (19 mi)[1] |
Epicentre | 3°18′58″N 95°51′14″E / 3.316°N 95.854°E[1] |
Type | Megathrust |
Areas affected | Indian Ocean coastline areas |
Max. intensity | MMI IX (Violent) |
Tsunami | |
Casualties | 227,898 dead[6][7][8] |
On 26 December 2004, at 07:58:53 local time (
A massive
It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Asia, the most powerful earthquake in the 21st century, and at least the
Earthquake
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami |
---|
Countries affected |
Humanitarian response |
Military operations |
Related topics |
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was initially documented as having a moment magnitude of 8.8. In February 2005, scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0.[18] Although the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center has accepted these new numbers, the United States Geological Survey has, as of 2022, so far not changed its estimate of 9.1.[19] A 2006 study estimated a magnitude of Mw 9.1–9.3; Hiroo Kanamori of the California Institute of Technology estimates that Mw 9.2 is representative of the earthquake's size.[20][21]
The
Indonesia lies between the Pacific Ring of Fire along the north-eastern islands adjacent to New Guinea, and the Alpide belt that runs along the south and west from Sumatra, Java, Bali, Flores to Timor. The 2002 Sumatra earthquake is believed to have been a foreshock, preceding the main event by over two years.[24]
Historical comparisons
Great earthquakes, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, are associated with megathrust events in subduction zones. Their seismic moments can account for a significant fraction of the global seismic moment across century-scale periods. Of all the moment released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one eighth was due to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.[25] This quake, together with the Great Alaskan earthquake (1964) and the Great Chilean earthquake (1960), account for almost half of the total moment.[25][26]
Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Valdivia earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Alaska earthquake in Prince William Sound (magnitude 9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off Kamchatka, Russia, on 5 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0) and Tōhoku, Japan (magnitude 9.1) in March 2011. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. In comparison to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the death toll from these earthquakes and tsunamis was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas.[10]
Comparisons with earlier earthquakes are difficult, as earthquake strength were not measured systematically until the 1930s.[27] However, historical earthquake strength can sometimes be estimated by examining historical descriptions of the damage caused, and the geological records of the areas where they occurred.[28] Some examples of significant historical megathrust earthquakes are the 1868 Arica earthquake in Peru and the 1700 Cascadia earthquake in western North America.
Tectonic plates
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was unusually large in geographical and geological extent. An estimated 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of fault surface slipped (or ruptured) about 15 m (50 ft) along the subduction zone where the Indian Plate slides under (or subducts) the overriding Burma Plate. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over several minutes: Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about 400 km (250 mi) long and 100 km (60 mi) wide, 30 km (19 mi) beneath the sea bed—the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at about 2.8 km/s (1.74 mi/s; 10,100 km/h; 6,260 mph), beginning off the coast of Aceh and proceeding north-westerly over about 100 seconds. After a pause of about another 100 seconds, the rupture continued northwards towards the
The Indian Plate is part of the Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is moving north-east at an average of 60 mm/a (0.075 in/Ms). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point, the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands, and northern Sumatra. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive volatiles out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate, causing partial melting and the formation of magma. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the Earth's crust through volcanoes in the form of a volcanic arc. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the Eurasian Plate has created the Sunda Arc.
As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake resulted in a rise of the seafloor by several metres, displacing an estimated 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of water and triggering devastating tsunami waves. The waves radiated outwards along the entire 1,600 km (1,000 mi) length of the rupture (acting as a line source). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the seafloor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated 0.1 mm (0.004 in).[29]
Aftershocks and other earthquakes
Numerous aftershocks were reported off the Andaman Islands, the Nicobar Islands and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.6 2005 Nias–Simeulue earthquake, which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of Nias, is not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicentre, and was most likely triggered by stress changes associated with the 2004 event.[30] The earthquake produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as high as 6.9[31]) and presently ranks as the third-largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude or Richter magnitude scale.
Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 7.2[32] continued to shake the region daily for three or four months.[33] As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in the sub-antarctic Auckland Islands, an uninhabited region west of New Zealand, and Macquarie Island to Australia's north. This is unusual since earthquakes of magnitude eight or more occur only about once per year on average.[34] The U.S. Geological Survey sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events.[35]
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have triggered activity in both
Energy released
The energy released on the Earth's surface (Me, the energy magnitude, which is the seismic potential for damage) by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was estimated at 1.1×1017
The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to 200–300 mm (8–12 in), equivalent to the effect of the
Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge
The shift of mass and the massive release of energy slightly altered the Earth's rotation. Weeks after the earthquake, theoretical models suggested the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68
There was 10 m (33 ft) movement laterally and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), might have moved south-west by up to 36 m (120 ft), but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about 0.2 m (8 in).[45] Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands appear to have shifted south-west by around 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) and to have sunk by 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[46]
In February 2005, the Royal Navy vessel HMS Scott surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between 1,000 and 5,000 m (550 and 2,730 fathoms; 3,300 and 16,400 ft). The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam sonar system, revealed that the earthquake had made a considerable impact on the topography of the seabed. 1,500-metre-high (5,000 ft) thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating landslides several kilometres wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m (330 ft) high and 2 km (1.2 mi) long. The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tonnes, as far as 10 km (6 mi) across the seabed. An oceanic trench several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.[47]
The TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean.[48] These satellites carry radars that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies in the order of 500 mm (20 in) were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami.[49] Unlike data from tide gauges installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave.
Legacy
Before the 2004 quake there were three arguments against a large earthquake occurring the Sumatra region. After the quake it was considered that earthquake hazard risk would need to be reassessed for regions previously thought to have low risk based on these criteria:[50]
- The subducting plate at the location of the 2004 quake is older and more dense. Before the 2004 earthquake it was thought that only the subduction of young and buoyant crust could product giant earthquakes.
- Slow plate motion. Previously it was thought that the convergence rate had to be fast.
- Before the 2004 quake it was thought that giant earthquakes only occurred in regions without back-arc basins.
Tsunami
The sudden vertical rise of the seabed by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a teletsunami and is much more likely to be produced by the vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion.[51]
The tsunami, like all others, behaved differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a low, broad hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at high speed of 500 to 1,000 km/h (310 to 620 mph); in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of 24 m (80 ft) when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to 30 m (100 ft) in some areas when travelling inland.[4] Radar satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: maximum height was at 600 mm (2 ft) two hours after the earthquake, the first such observations ever made.[52][53]
According to Tad Murty, vice-president of the Tsunami Society, the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about 5 megatons of TNT (21 PJ), which is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II (including the two atomic bombs) but still a couple of orders of magnitude less than the energy released in the earthquake itself. In many places, the waves reached as far as 2 km (1.2 mi) inland.[54]
Because the 1,600 km (1,000 mi) fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north–south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east–west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicentre. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region.
Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such landmasses. Thus, the state of Kerala was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of India, and the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of safety, as Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.
Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines.[55][56] The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea off its western coast.
The tsunami was noticed as far as
Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around 200 to 400 mm (7.9 to 15.7 in).[58] At Manzanillo, Mexico, a 2.6 m (8.5 ft) crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in Vancouver, which puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the mid-ocean ridges which run along the margins of the continental plates.[59]
Early signs and warnings
Despite a delay of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken by surprise. There were no tsunami warning systems in the Indian Ocean to detect tsunamis or to warn the general population living around the ocean.[60] Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water, it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it.
Tsunamis are more frequent in the Pacific Ocean than in other oceans because of earthquakes in the "Ring of Fire". Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where the earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Not every earthquake produces large tsunamis: on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami.
The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is felt only weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea sometimes recedes temporarily from the coast, which was observed on the eastern earthquake rupture zone such as the coastlines of Aceh,
One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of
Indonesia
Aceh
The tsunami devastated the coastline of Aceh province, about 20 minutes after the earthquake. Banda Aceh, the closest major city, suffered severe casualties. The sea receded and exposed the seabed, prompting locals to collect stranded fish and explore the area. Local eyewitnesses described three large waves, with the first wave rising gently to the foundation of the buildings, followed minutes later by a sudden withdrawal of the sea near the port of Ulèë Lheue. This was succeeded by the appearance of two large black-coloured steep waves which then travelled inland into the capital city as a large turbulent bore. Eyewitnesses described the tsunami as a "black giant", "mountain" and a "wall of water". Video footage revealed torrents of black water, surging by windows of a two-story residential area situated about 3.2 km (2.0 mi) inland. Additionally, amateur footage recorded in the middle of the city captured an approaching black surge flowing down the city streets, full of debris, inundating them.[68]
The level of destruction was extreme on the northwestern areas of the city, immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds, and directly facing the Indian Ocean. The tsunami height was reduced from 12 m (39 ft) at Ulee Lheue to 6 m (20 ft) a further 8 km (5.0 mi) to the north-east. The inundation was observed to extend 3–4 km (1.9–2.5 mi) inland throughout the city. Within 2–3 km (1.2–1.9 mi) of the shoreline, houses, except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were swept away or destroyed by the tsunami.[69][70] The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river, dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth at the city was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground-floor storefronts. In the seaside section of Ulee Lheue, the flow depths were over 9 m (30 ft). Footage showed evidence of back-flowing of the Aceh River, carrying debris and people from destroyed villages at the coast and transporting them up to 40 km (25 mi) inland.[71]
A group of small islands: Weh, Breueh, Nasi, Teunom, Bunta, Lumpat, and Batee lie just north of the capital city. The tsunami reached a run-up of 10–20 m (33–66 ft) on the western shorelines of
Meulaboh, a remote coastal city, was among the hardest hit by the tsunami. The waves arrived after the sea receded about 500 m (1,600 ft), followed by an advancing small tsunami. The second and third destructive waves arrived later, which exceeded the height of the coconut trees. The inundation distance is about 5 km (3.1 mi). Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster included Leupung, Lhokruet, Lamno, Patek, Calang, and Teunom. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coast were Pidie Regency, Samalanga, Panteraja, and Lhokseumawe. The high fatality rate in the area was mainly due to lack of preparation of the community towards a tsunami and limited knowledge and education among the population regarding the natural phenomenon. Helicopter surveys revealed entire settlements virtually destroyed, with destruction extending miles inland. Only a few mosques remained standing.[75]
The greatest run-up height of the tsunami was measured at a hill between Lhoknga and Leupung, on the western coast of the northern tip of Sumatra, near Banda Aceh, and reached 51 m (167 ft).[5][76]
The tsunami heights in Sumatra:[69]
- 15–30 m (49–98 ft) on the west coast of Aceh
- 6–12 m (20–39 ft) on the Banda Aceh coast
- 6 m (20 ft) on the Krueng Raya coast
- 5 m (16 ft) on the Sigli coast
- 3–6 m (9.8–19.7 ft) on the north coast of Weh Island directly facing the tsunami source
- 3 m (9.8 ft) on the opposite side of the coast of Weh Island facing the tsunami
Sri Lanka
The island country of Sri Lanka, located about 1,700 km (1,100 mi) from Sumatra, was ravaged by the tsunami around 2 hours after the earthquake. The tsunami first struck the eastern coastline and subsequently refracted around the southern point of Sri Lanka (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves then inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy was reflected from impact with the Maldives.[77] In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only to those in Indonesia, with approximately 35,000 killed. The eastern shores of Sri Lanka were the hardest hit since it faced the epicentre of the earthquake, while the southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists and fishing.[78] The degradation of the natural environment in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. Approximately 90,000 buildings and many wooden houses were destroyed.[78]
The tsunami arrived on the island as a small brown-orange-coloured flood. Moments later, the ocean floor was exposed as much as 1 km (0.62 mi) in places, which was followed by massive second and third waves. Amateur video recorded at the city of Galle showed a large deluge flooding the city, carrying debris and sweeping away people while in the coastal resort town of Beruwala, the tsunami appeared as a huge brown-orange-coloured bore which reached the first level of a hotel, causing destruction and taking people unaware. Other videos recorded showed that the tsunami appeared like a flood raging inland. The construction of seawalls and breakwaters reduced the power of waves at some locations.
The largest run-up measured was at 12.5 m (41 ft) with inundation distance of 390–1,500 m (1,280–4,920 ft) in Yala.[79] In Hambantota, run-ups measured 11 m (36 ft) with the greatest inundation distance of 2 km (1.2 mi). Run-up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at 2.4–4.11 m (7 ft 10 in – 13 ft 6 in).[79][77] Waves measured on the east coast ranged from 4.5–9 m (15–30 ft) at Pottuvill to Batticaloa at 2.6–5 m (8 ft 6 in – 16 ft 5 in) in the north-east around Trincomalee and 4–5 m (13–16 ft) in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda.
Sri Lanka tsunami height survey:
- 9 m (30 ft) at Koggala
- 6 m (20 ft) at Galle port
- 4.8 m (16 ft) around the Galle coast
- 8.7 m (29 ft) at Nonagama
- 4.9 m (16 ft) at Weligama
- 4 m (13 ft) at Dodundawa
- 4.7 m (15 ft) at Ambalangoda
- 4.7 m (15 ft) at Hikkaduwa Fishery Harbour
- 10 m (33 ft) at Kahawa
- 4.8 m (16 ft) at North Beach of Beruwala
- 6 m (20 ft) at Paiyagala
A regular passenger train operating between
Thailand
The tsunami travelled eastward through the
Thailand experienced the second largest tsunami run-up. The tsunami heights recorded:[81][82]
- 6–10 m (20–33 ft) in Khao Lak
- 3–6 m (9.8–19.7 ft) along the west coast of Phuket island
- 3 m (9.8 ft) along the south coast of Phuket island
- 2 m (6 ft 7 in) along the east coast of Phuket island
- 4–6 m (13–20 ft) on the Phi Phi Islands
- 19.6 m (64 ft) at Ban Thung Dap
- 5 m (16 ft) at Ramson
- 6.8 m (22 ft) at Ban Thale Nok
- 5 m (16 ft) at Hat Praphat (Ranong Coastal Resources Research Station)
- 6.3 m (21 ft) at Thai Mueang District
- 6.8 m (22 ft) at Rai Dan
The province of Phang Nga was the most affected area in
Khao Lak also experienced the largest tsunami run-up height outside of Sumatra.[81][page needed]. The highest-recorded tsunami run-up was measured 19.6 m (64 ft) at Ban Thung Dap, on the south-west tip of Ko Phra Thong Island and the second-highest at 15.8 m (52 ft) at Ban Nam Kim.[82] Moreover, the largest death toll occurred at Khao Lak, with about 5,000 people killed.
In addition, the
At
The Phi Phi Islands are a group of small islands that were affected by the tsunami. The north bay of Phi Phi Don Island opens to the north-west in the direction of the tsunami. The measured tsunami height on this beach was 5.8 m (19 ft). According to eyewitness accounts, the tsunami came from the north and south. The ground level was about 2 m above sea level, where there were many cottages and hotels. The south bay opens to the south-east and faces in the opposite direction from the tsunami. Furthermore, Phi Phi Le Island shields the port of Phi Phi Don Island. The measured tsunami height was 4.6 m (15 ft) in the port.[81] Amateur camcorder footage taken by Israeli tourists showed the tsunami advancing inland suddenly as a small flood, gradually becoming more powerful and engulfing the whole beach and resort, with the tsunami carrying a yacht out to sea.
Moreover, the tsunami was detected by scuba divers around offshore islands like the Similan Islands and the Surin Islands. The divers reported being caught in a violent, swirling current suddenly while underwater. Local camcorder footage showed the tsunami surging inland and flooding camping equipment at the Similan Islands while the tsunami caught tourists unaware at the Surin Islands, and dragging them out towards the sea.
India
The tsunami reached the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu along the southeastern coastline of the Indian mainland about 2 hours after the earthquake. At the same time, it arrived in the state of Kerala, on the southwestern coast. There were two to five tsunamis that coincided with the local high tide in some areas.[84][85][86][87]
The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs includes:[87]
- 3.4 m (11 ft) at Kerala, inundation distance of 0.5–1.5 km (0.31–0.93 mi) with 250 km (160 mi) of coastline affected
- 4.5 m (15 ft) at the southern coastline of Tamil Nadu, inundation distance of 0.2–2 km (0.12–1.24 mi) with 100 km (62 mi) of coastline affected
- 5 m (16 ft) at the eastern coastline of Tamil Nadu facing tsunami source, inundation distance of 0.4–1.5 km (0.25–0.93 mi) with 800 km (500 mi) of coastline affected
- 4 m (13 ft) at Pondicherry, inundation distance of 0.2–2 km (0.12–1.24 mi) with 25 km (16 mi) of coastline affected
- 2.2 m (7.2 ft) at Andhra Pradesh, inundation distance of 0.2–1 km (0.12–0.62 mi) with 985 km (612 mi) of coastline affected
Along the coast of
The state of Kerala experienced tsunami-related damage in three southern densely populated districts, Ernakulam, Alappuzha, and Kollam, due to diffraction of the waves around Sri Lanka. The southernmost district of Thiruvananthapuram, however, escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the diffracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage occurred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west by the Arabian Sea and on the east by the Kerala backwaters. The waves receded before the first tsunami with the highest fatality reported from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam district, caused by a 4 m (13 ft) tsunami.[87] A video recorded by locals showed the tsunami flooding the beach and villages, causing despair amongst the villagers.
Many villages in the state of Andhra Pradesh were destroyed. In the Krishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi and on Machalipattanam Beach. The most affected was Prakasham District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at Singraikonda.[87] Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands.[87]
The tsunami run-up was only 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in areas in the state of Tamil Nadu shielded by the island of Sri Lanka but was 4–5 m (13–16 ft) in coastal districts such as
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Due to close proximity to the earthquake, the tsunami took just minutes to devastate the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Andaman Islands were moderately affected while the island of Little Andaman and the Nicobar Islands were severely affected by the tsunami.
In South Andaman island, based on local eyewitnesses, there were three tsunami waves, with the third being the most destructive. Flooding occurred at the coast and low-lying areas inland, which were connected to open sea through creeks. Inundation was observed, along the east coast of South Andaman Island, restricted to Chidiyatapu, Burmanallah, Kodiaghat, Beadnabad, Corbyn's cove and Marina Park/Aberdeen Jetty areas. Along the west coast, the inundation was observed around Guptapara, Manjeri, Wandoor, Collinpur and Tirur regions. Several near-shore establishments and numerous infrastructures such as seawalls and a 20 MW diesel-generated power plant at Bamboo Flat were destroyed.[91] At Port Blair, the water receded before the first wave, and the third wave was the tallest and caused the most damage.
Results of the tsunami survey in South Andaman along Chiriyatapu, Corbyn's Cove and Wandoor beaches:[citation needed]
- 5 m (16 ft) in maximum tsunami height with a run-up of 4.24 m (13.9 ft) at Chiriyatapu Beach
- 5.5 m (18 ft) in maximum tsunami height and run-up at Corbyn's Cove Beach
- 6.6 m (22 ft) in maximum tsunami height and run-up of 4.63 m (15.2 ft) at Wandoor Beach
Meanwhile, in the Little Andaman, tsunami waves impinged on the eastern shore about 25 to 30 minutes after the earthquake in a four-wave cycle of which the fourth tsunami was the most devastating with a wave height of about 10 m (33 ft). The tsunami destroyed settlements at Hut Bay within a range of 1 km (0.62 mi) from the seashore. Run up level up to 3.8 m (12 ft) have been measured.[91]
In Malacca, located on the island of Car Nicobar, there were three tsunami waves. The sea was observed to rise suddenly before the onset of the first wave. The first wave came 5 minutes after the earthquake, preceded by a recession of the sea up to 600–700 m (2,000–2,300 ft).[citation needed]. The second and third waves came in 10 minutes intervals after the first wave. The third wave was the strongest, with a maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft). Waves nearly three stories high devastated the Indian Air Force base, located just south of Malacca. The maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft).[citation needed] Inundation limit was found to be up to 1.25 km (0.78 mi) inland. The impact of the waves was so severe that four oil tankers were thrown almost 800 m (2,600 ft) from the seashore near Malacca to the Air force colony main gate.[91] In Chuckchucha and Lapati, the tsunami arrived in a three-wave cycle with a maximum tsunami wave height of 12 m (39 ft).
In Campbell Bay of
The worst affected island in the Andaman & Nicobar chain is Katchall Island, with 303 people confirmed dead and 4,354 missing out of a total population of 5,312.
Reports of tsunami wave height:[96][97]
- 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) at Diglipur and Rangat at North Andaman Island
- 8 m (26 ft) high at Campbell Bay on Great Nicobar Island
- 10–12 m (33–39 ft) high at Malacca (in Car Nicobar Island) and at Hut Bay on Little Andaman Island
- 3 m (9.8 ft) high at Port Blair on South Andaman Island
Maldives
The tsunami severely affected the Maldives at a distance of 2,500 km (1,600 mi) from the epicentre. Similar to Sri Lanka, survivors reported three waves with the second wave being the most powerful. Being rich in coral reefs, the Maldives provides an opportunity for scientists to assess the impact of a tsunami on coral atolls. The significantly lower tsunami impact on the Maldives compared to Sri Lanka is mostly due to the topography and bathymetry of the atoll chain with offshore coral reefs, deep channels separating individual atolls and its arrival within low tide which decreased the power of the tsunami. After the tsunami, there was some concern that the country might be submerged entirely and become uninhabitable. However, this was proven untrue. The highest tsunami wave measured was 4 m (13 ft) at Vilufushi Island. The tsunami arrived approximately 2 hours after the earthquake. The greatest tsunami inundation occurred at North Male Atoll, Male island at 250 m (820 ft) along the streets.
Local footage recorded showed the tsunami flooding the streets up to knee level in town, while another video taken at the beach showed the tsunami slowly flooding and gradually surging inland.
The Maldives tsunami wave analysis:
- 1.3–2.4 m (4 ft 3 in – 7 ft 10 in) at North Male Atoll, Male Island
- 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at North Male Atoll, Huhule Island
- 1.7–2.8 m (5 ft 7 in – 9 ft 2 in) at South Male Atoll, Embudhu Finothu
- 2.5–3.3 m (8 ft 2 in – 10 ft 10 in) at Laamu Atoll, Fonadhoo Island
- 2.2–2.9 m (7 ft 3 in – 9 ft 6 in) at Laamu Atoll, Gan Island
- 2.3–3 m (7 ft 7 in – 9 ft 10 in) at North Male Atoll, Dhiffushi Island
- 2.2–2.4 m (7 ft 3 in – 7 ft 10 in) at North Male Atoll, Huraa Island
- more than 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) at North Male Atoll, Kuda Huraa Island
Myanmar
In
Tsunami survey heights:[citation needed]
- 0.6–2.3 m (2 ft 0 in – 7 ft 7 in) around the Ayeyarwady delta
- 0.9–2.9 m (2 ft 11 in – 9 ft 6 in) at Dawei area
- 0.7–2.2 m (2 ft 4 in – 7 ft 3 in) around Myeik
- 0.4–2.6 m (1 ft 4 in – 8 ft 6 in) around Kawthaung
Interviews with local people indicate that they did not feel the earthquake in
Somalia
The tsunami travelled 5,000 km (3,100 mi) west across the open ocean before striking the East African country of
Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from 5 m (16 ft) to 9 m (30 ft) with inundation distances varying from 44 m (144 ft) to 704 m (2,310 ft). The maximum runup height of almost 9 m (30 ft) was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on a cliff near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness account.
The highest death toll was in Hafun, with 19 dead and 160 people presumed missing out of its 5,000 inhabitants. This was the highest number of casualties in a single African town and the largest tsunami death toll in a single town to the west of the Indian subcontinent. In Xaafuun, small drawbacks were observed before the third and most powerful tsunami wave flooded the town.[99]
Other locations
The tsunami also reached Malaysia, mainly on the northern states such as Kedah, Perak and Penang and on offshore islands such as Langkawi island. Peninsular Malaysia was shielded by the full force of the tsunami due to the protection offered by the island of Sumatra, which lies just off the western coast.[100]
Bangladesh escaped major damage and deaths because the water displaced by the
The tsunami was detected in the southern parts of east Africa, where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that face the Indian Ocean. A few other African countries also recorded fatalities; one in Kenya, three in Seychelles, ten in Tanzania, and South Africa, where two were killed as a direct result of the tsunami—the furthest from the epicentre.[102][103]
Tidal surges also occurred along the
Impact
Countries affected
According to the
The tsunami caused severe damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa, with the furthest recorded fatality directly attributed to the tsunami at
Relief agencies reported that one third of the dead appeared to be children. This was a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters. Oxfam went on to report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishers to return and looking after their children in the houses.[109]
States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Maldives. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the costliest in human history.[
In addition to a large number of local residents, up to 9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the Nordic countries.[110] Sweden was the European country most severely affected both in absolute numbers, and by a wide margin when considered in relation to the country's population, with a death toll of 543. Germany was close behind with 539 identified victims.
Affected country[a] | Confirmed deaths | Estimated deaths[b] | Injured | Missing | Displaced | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Indonesia | 130,736 | 167,540 | 37,063 | 500,000+ | [111] | |
Sri Lanka | 35,322[c] | 35,322 | 21,411 | 516,150 | [112] | |
India | 12,405 | 16,269 | 3,874 | 647,599 | ||
Thailand | 5,395[d] | 8,212 | 8,457 | 2,817 | 7,000 | [113][114] |
Somalia | 78 | 289 | 5,000 | [115][116] | ||
Myanmar | 61 | 400–600 | 45 | 200 | 3,200 | [107][117] |
Maldives | 82 | 108 | 26 | 15,000+ | [118][119] | |
Malaysia | 68 | 75 | 299 | 6 | 5,000+ | [120][121] |
Tanzania
|
10 | 13 | 3 | [122] | ||
Seychelles
|
3 | 3 | 57 | 200 | [123][124] | |
Bangladesh
|
2 | 2 | [125] | |||
South Africa
|
2[e] | 2 | [126] | |||
Yemen
|
2 | 2 | [127] | |||
Kenya
|
1 | 1 | 2 | |||
Madagascar
|
1,000+ | [128] | ||||
Total estimates | 184,167 | 227,898 | 125,000 | 43,789 | 1,740,000 | |
Environmental impact
Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake caused an enormous environmental impact that affected the region for many years. Severe damage was inflicted on ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, forests, coastal wetlands, vegetation, sand dunes and rock formations, animal and plant biodiversity and groundwater. Also, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, water pollution and the destruction of sewage collectors and treatment plants threatened the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental impact took a long time and significant resources to assess.[129]
The main effect was caused by poisoning of the freshwater supplies and of the soil by saltwater infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer over arable land. In the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth; and aquifers were invaded through porous rock. On the island's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water.[130]
The Colombo-based International Water Management Institute monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one-and-a-half years after the event.[130] The IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.[131]
Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango, and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover.[130]
In addition to other forms of aid,[132] the Australian government sent ecological experts to help develop strategies for reef-monitoring and rehabilitation of marine environments and coral reefs in the Maldives, Seychelles and other areas. Scientists had developed significant ecological expertise from work with the Great Barrier Reef, in Australia's northeastern waters.[133]
In response to the unprecedented situation, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) worked with governments in the region to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it.[134] UNEP established an emergency fund, set up a Task Force to respond to requests for assistance from countries affected by the tsunami, and was able to mobilize and distribute approximately US$9.3 million for environmental recovery and disaster risk reduction between 2004 and 2007. Funding came from other international agencies and from countries including Finland, Norway, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.[135][136]
Evidence suggested that the presence of
Economic impact
The level of damage to the economy resulting from the tsunami depends on the scale examined. While the overall impact on the national economies was minor, local economies were devastated. The two main occupations affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism.[138] Some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by saltwater from the ocean.[139]
The impact on coastal fishing communities and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been devastating with high losses of income earners as well as boats and fishing gear.[140][141] In Sri Lanka, artisanal fishery, in which the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicated that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions were destroyed by the wave surges.[142]
While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to Sri Lanka's fishing industry, it also created a demand for fibreglass-reinforced plastic catamarans in the boatyards of Tamil Nadu. Given that over 51,000 vessels were lost to the tsunami, the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led to lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacrificed to cut prices for those who were impoverished by the tsunami.[143]
Even though only coastal regions were directly affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted as a starting point for many other tourist destinations in Thailand.[144]
Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were untouched by the tsunami were hit by cancellations.[145]
Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the
Historical context
The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about A.D. 1400.[148][149] In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hard-hit west coast of Thailand, reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent from about 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous tsunamis in Aceh, a province at the northern tip of Sumatra; radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in the soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between A.D. 1300 and 1450.[150]
The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined is the
Before 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and Pacific Ocean waters by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000 to 120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the region. In 1782, about 40,000 people are thought to have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in the South China Sea.[152] The deadliest tsunami before 2004 was Italy's 1908 Messina earthquake on the Mediterranean Sea where the earthquake and tsunami killed about 123,000.[153]
Other effects
Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami.[154] Even 14 years afterwards, researchers find HPA axis dysregulation and “burnout” in survivors.[155] Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs.[citation needed]
The hardest-hit area, Aceh, is a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to the insurgency between the Indonesian military and Free Aceh Movement (GAM). Some believe that the tsunami was divine punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that Allah was angry that Muslims were killing each other in an ongoing conflict.[156] Saudi cleric Muhammad Al-Munajjid attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine" during Christmas break.[157]
The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led GAM to declare a cease-fire on 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.[158]
In a poll conducted in 27 countries, 15% of respondents named the tsunami the most significant event of the year. Only the Iraq War was named by as many respondents.[159][160] The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.[161]
The tsunami left both the people and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, Terra Research notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between Sumatra and New Zealand.[162] In response, the Indian Minister of Home Affairs announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tsunami was likely along the southern Indian coast and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, even as there was no sign of turbulence in the region.[162] The announcement generated panic in the Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in jammed roads.[163] The announcement was a false alarm, and the Home Affairs minister withdrew their announcement.[163] On further investigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of a self-described earthquake forecaster who had no telephone listing and maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system.[164]
The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political impact in Sweden. The hardest-hit country outside Asia, Sweden, lost 543 tourists, mainly in Thailand. The
Smith Dharmasaroja, a meteorologist who had predicted that an earthquake and tsunami "is going to occur for sure" way back in 1994,[166][167] was assigned the development of the Thai tsunami warning system. The Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System was formed in early 2005 to provide an early warning of tsunamis for inhabitants around the Indian Ocean coasts.[168]
The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth due to the earthquake had several consequences. It displaced the North Pole by 25 mm (0.98 in). It also slightly changed the shape of the Earth, specifically by decreasing Earth's oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially increasing Earth's rotation a little and thus shortening the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds.[169]
Humanitarian response
A great deal of
There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized.[170]
In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in burying bodies hurriedly due to fear of disease spreading. However, the public health risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources.[171][172] The World Food Programme provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.[173]
Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in aid for damaged regions,[174] with the governments of Australia pledging US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6 million aid package for Indonesia), Germany offering US$660 million, Japan offering US$500 million, Canada offering US$343 million, Norway and the Netherlands offering both US$183 million, the United States offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million), and the World Bank offering US$250 million. Also, Italy offered US$95 million, increased later to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system.[175] Australia, India, Japan and the United States formed an ad-hoc corroborative group, and it was the origin of Quadrilateral Security Dialogue.[176]
According to
In mid-March, the Asian Development Bank reported that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous.[178] Many charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the United Kingdom, the public donated roughly £330 million sterling (nearly US$600 million). This considerably outweighed the allocation by the government to disaster relief and reconstruction of £75 million and came to an average of about £5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen.[179][180]
In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in north-east Sri Lanka after heavy fighting between government troops and the Tamil Tiger rebels, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said.[181]
Legacy
The 2004 disaster prompted the creation of the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System.
In popular culture
Film and television
- Children of Tsunami: No More Tears (2005), a 24-minute documentary
- The Wave That Shook The World (2005), educational television-series documentary about the tsunami
- Tsunami: The Aftermath (2006), a two-part television miniseries about its aftermath
- Dasavathaaram (2008), a Tamil thriller film involving the tsunami
- Hereafter (2010), a main character's life is affected after surviving the tsunami while on vacation
- Hafalan Shalat Delisa (2011), an Indonesian movie with the tsunami as the initial incident
- The Impossible (2012), an English-language Spanish film based on the story of María Belón and her family
- Kayal (2014), a Tamil drama film which culminates with the tsunami
Literature
- Paint the Sky with Stars: Selected Poetry in Remembrance of the Boxing Day Tsunami 2004 (2005) edited by Stephen Robert Kuta[182]
- The Killing Sea (2006), two teenagers struggle to survive in the days after the tsunami[183]
- Wave (2013), a memoir by Sonali Deraniyagala
- On the Island (2012), two people stranded on a Maldives uninhabited island are rescued because of the tsunami.
Music
- "12/26" by Kimya Dawson, about the event and the humanitarian efforts, from the perspective of a victim whose family died in the disaster.
- "Where the Wave Broke" by Burst, written in memory of Mieszko Talarczyk, frontman of Swedish grindcore band Nasum (whom Burst bassist Jesper Liveröd also performed with), who died in the disaster, which led to Nasum's subsequent disbandment.
See also
- Deaths in December 2004 – notable people killed in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami
- List of earthquakes in 2004
- List of earthquakes in Indonesia
- List of natural disasters by death toll
- Lists of earthquakes
- List of megathrust earthquakes
References
- ^ a b c d National Earthquake Information Center (26 December 2004). "M 9.1 - 2004 Sumatra - Andaman Islands Earthquake". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 26 September 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
- (PDF) from the original on 9 January 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2015.
- ^ "Astonishing Wave Heights Among the Findings of an International Tsunami Survey Team on Sumatra". U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 27 August 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
- ^ .
- ^ from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
- ^ a b "Joint evaluation of the international response to the Indian Ocean tsunami: Synthesis Report" (PDF). TEC. July 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2006. Retrieved 9 July 2018.
- ^ "Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths". U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013.
- ^ "Indian Ocean tsunami anniversary: Memorial events held". BBC News. 26 December 2014. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ "Indian Ocean Tsunami – Economic Aspects". indianoceantsunami.web.unc.edu. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2018.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2019.
- ^ "Tsunamis and Earthquakes: Tsunami Generation from the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake – USGS Western Coastal and Marine Geology". Walrus.wr.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ Goff, James; Dudley, Walter (2021). "Boxing Day: The World's Worst Disaster of the 21st Century". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
- ^ "Analysis of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Reveals Longest Fault Rupture Ever". National Science Foundation. 19 May 2005. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- ^ Walton, Marsha (20 May 2005). "Scientists: Sumatra quake longest ever recorded". CNN. Archived from the original on 14 February 2012. Retrieved 15 December 2016.
- S2CID 27869948.
- ^ S2CID 4321796. Archived from the original(PDF) on 4 June 2010. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
- ISBN 978-1-84844-692-2. Archived from the originalon 22 July 2011. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
- ^ McKee, Maggie (9 February 2005). "Power of tsunami earthquake heavily underestimated". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 27 February 2005.
- ^ "Long-term ocean observing for international capacity development around tsunami early warning | U.S. Geological Survey". www.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 18 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
- ^ EERI Publication 2006–06, page 14.
- ISSN 8755-2930.
- hdl:11250/2426119. Archived(PDF) from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2019.
- doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.09.005. Archived from the original(PDF) on 19 May 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
- (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 10 February 2016.
- ^ ISSN 0037-1106.
- ^ Callender, Rick. "Cumulative Moment Mag". IRIS Consortium. Archived from the original on 20 November 2022. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
- U.S. Geological Survey. Archivedfrom the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
- ^ Palmer, Brian (14 January 2010). "How do they measure earthquakes from 250 years ago?". Slate Magazine. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2022.
- S2CID 30721065.
- ^ USGS (22 July 2010). "Poster of the Northern Sumatra Earthquake of 28 March 2005 – Magnitude 8.7". Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- ^ "M 6.9 - 89 km WSW of Singkil, Indonesia". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
- ^ "M 7.2 - 284 km WNW of Sabang, Indonesia". earthquake.usgs.gov. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
- ^ "Sumatra shaken by new earthquake". BBC News. 10 April 2005. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "USGS Earthquake Hazards Program: FAQ". Earthquake.usgs.gov. 10 December 2012. Archived from the original on 20 November 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "Magnitude 9.1 Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake FAQ". USGS. 29 December 2014. Archived from the original on 13 December 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2015.
- ^ Rinaldo, Aditya (12 April 2005). "Thousands flee as Indonesian volcano spews into life". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 17 February 2006.
- ^ Eileen Ng (3 October 2018). "Volcano erupts on same Indonesian island as earlier quake". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2020.
Danny Hillman Natawidjaja, a geologist with Indonesia's Institute of Science...cited the example of the eruption of Mount Talang volcano in Indonesia's Sumatra province in April 2005, which geologists have said was connected to the devastating December 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.
- ^ "Volcano on Indonesia's Sumatra Erupts". ABC News. 11 April 2005. Archived from the original on 19 September 2005.
- ^ "USGS Energy and Broadband Solution". National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 4 April 2010. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ "USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes". Earthquake.usgs.gov. 27 October 2009. Archived from the original on 1 September 2009. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ Virtanen, Heikki (2006). Studies of earth dynamics with the superconducting gravimeter (PDF) (Dissertation). University of Helsinki. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2009.
- ^ Cook-Anderson, Gretchen; Beasley, Dolores (10 January 2005). "NASA Details Earthquake Effects on the Earth" (Press release). NASA. Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
- ^ Schechner, Sam. "Earthquakes vs. the Earth's Rotation Archived 12 June 2018 at the Wayback Machine." Slate. 27 December 2004.
- ^ "Italian scientists say Asian quakes cause Earth's axis shifted". Xinhua. 29 December 2004. Archived from the original on 5 July 2009.
- ^ Staff Writer (31 January 2005). "Quake moved Sumatra by only 20 centimeters: Danish scientists". Agence France-Presse.
- ^ Bagla, Pallava (28 January 2005). "After the Earth Moved". Science Now. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
- ^ Knight, Will (10 February 2005). "Asian tsunami seabed pictured with sonar". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 27 February 2005.
- ^ "NASA/French Satellite Data Reveal New Details of Tsunami". Jet Propulsion Laboratory/NASA. 11 January 2005. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
- ^ "TOPEX/Poseidon Satellite Data on 26 December 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean". Aviso. Archived from the original on 24 June 2011.
- ^ "Rethinking the Causes of Giant Earthquakes".
- ^ Lorca, Emilio; Recabarren, Margot (1997). Earthquakes and tsunamis: high school textbook (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
- ^ Leslie, John (10 January 2005). "NOAA Scientists able to Measure Tsunami Height from Space". NOAA Magazine. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 3 June 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2016.
- ^ McKee, Maggie (6 January 2005). "Radar satellites capture tsunami wave height". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 24 September 2008.
- ^ Pearce, Fred; Holmes, Bob (15 January 2005). "Tsunami: The impact will last for decades". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008.
- ^ "Tsunami time travel map". Tsunami Laboratory, Novosibirsk, Russia. Archived from the original on 3 April 2012. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
- ^ "Time travel map: Active Fault Research Center: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan". Staff.aist.go.jp. Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "Indian Ocean Tsunami" at Syowa Station, Antarctica". Hydrographic and Oceanographic Dept. Japan Coast Guard. Archived from the original on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
- ^ "Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December 2004". West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (USGS). 31 December 2004. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012.
- ^ Carey, Bjorn (25 August 2005). "Tsunami Waves Channeled Around the Globe in 2004 Disaster". LiveScience. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
- ^ "The 2004 Boxing Day tsunami". Australian Geographic. 18 December 2014. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
- ^ Block, Melissa (27 December 2004). "Sri Lankans Seek Lost Relatives After Tsunami". All Things Considered. NPR. Archived from the original on 23 November 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ Campbell, Matthew; Loveard, Keith; et al. "Tsunami disaster: Focus: Nature's timebomb Archived 16 May 2018 at the Wayback Machine." Times Online. 2 January 2005.
- ^ "Girl, 10, used geography lesson to save lives". The Telegraph. London. 1 January 2005. Archived from the original on 25 January 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ Subir Bhaumik (30 December 2004). "Andaman aborigines' fate unclear". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 December 2010. Retrieved 13 February 2010.
- .
- S2CID 10258905.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link - ^ Bhaumik, Subir (20 January 2005). "Tsunami folklore 'saved islanders'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ Borrero, Jose C. (9 February 2005). "Field Survey northern Sumatra and Banda Aceh, Indonesia and after the Tsunami and Earthquake of 26 December 2004" (PDF). Los Angeles: Department of Civil Engineering, University of Southern California. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ a b "Chapter 2 Earthquake, Tsunami and Damage in Banda Aceh and Northern Sumatra" (PDF). tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- S2CID 9702107.
- ^ Kaget Mera (25 January 2016). "Seconds From Disaster S03E13 Asian Tsunami". Archived from the original (Video) on 11 September 2016 – via YouTube.
- ^ red17khmer (30 November 2008). "Great Tsunami 12-26-04 at Banda Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia 3 of 3". Archived from the original (Video) on 28 October 2021 – via YouTube.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ geoffmackley (19 November 2009). "Boxing Day Tsunami Banda Aceh 4 of 4". Archived from the original (Video) on 28 October 2021 – via YouTube.
- ^ Yalciner, A.C.; Perincek, D.; Ersoy, S.; Presateya, G.; Hidayat, R.; McAdoo, B. (2005). "Report on December 26, 2004, Indian Ocean Tsunami, Field Survey on Jan 21–31 at North of Sumatra" (PDF). ITST of UNESCO IOC. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ "Tsunami Wave Run-ups: Indian Ocean – 2004". Science on a Sphere. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 31 March 2015. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 27 January 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
- ^ a b Helgeson, T.J. (Spring 2005). "Tsunami Disaster in Sri Lanka". Waves of Devastation. University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Archived from the original on 17 June 2008.
- ^ S2CID 220297852.
- S2CID 11312069.
- ^ a b c d "Chapter 4: Field Survey and Numerical Simulation on the 2004 Off-Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami in Thailand" (PDF). Tohoku University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 21 September 2016. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
- )
- ^ a b c "Tsunami Affected Areas in India 2004". Maps of India. Archived from the original on 7 December 2015. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
- ^ "Zoltán Grossman – Member of the Faculty in Geography & Native Studies". academic.evergreen.edu. Olympia, Washington: The Evergreen State College. Archived from the original on 30 December 2021. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
- ^ ISBN 9789048124985. Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2016. Retrieved 9 June 2016 – via Google Books.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
- ^ "Velankanni: Death in the churchyard". Rediff.com. 28 December 2004. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 21 August 2014.
- ^ "Tsunami sufferers question faith". BBC News. 27 March 2005. Archived from the original on 2 November 2014. Retrieved 21 August 2014.
- ^ Evergreen College. Archived from the originalon 8 February 2008. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
- ^ a b c d T. Ghosh, P. Jana, T.S. Giritharan, S. Bardhan, S.R. Basir, A.K. Ghosh Roy. (2007). Tsunami survey in Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. Geological Survey of India Special Publication no. 89. 165–184.
- ^ Paul, D.K.; Singh, Yogendra; Dubey, R.N. "Damage to Andaman & Nicobar Islands due to Earthquake and Tsunami of Dec. 26, 2004" (PDF). Department of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ^ a b "Tsunami in Andaman & Nicobar Islands". Andamanconnections.com. Archived from the original on 16 December 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016.
- ISBN 978-0-901297-41-9. Archived(PDF) from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- ^ "Quick Report on the Study of the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami Effects" (PDF). Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
- ^ "The Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004: The Effects in Mainland India and in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands" (PDF). EERI Special Earthquake Report. April 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
- ^ Ramanamurthy, M. V.; et al. (10 June 2005). "Inundation of sea water in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Tamil Nadu coast during 2004 Sumatra tsunami" (PDF). Current Science. 88 (11): 1736–1740. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 25 September 2016.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
- ^ (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
- ^ "Tsunami death toll passes 283,000". The Sydney Morning Herald. 28 January 2005. Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
- ^ "International Tsunami Information Center - International Tsunami Information Center". itic.ioc-unesco.org. Archived from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
- ^ Fritz, Hermann M.; Borrero, Jose C.; Synolakis, Costas E.; Okal, Emile A. (1 January 2006). "Field Surveys of 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami From Sumatra to East Africa". Archived from the original on 30 December 2021. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
- ^ "Unesco Yemen Tsunami" (PDF). smartech.gatech.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 13 November 2017.
- ^ "WA feels the tsunami's ripples". The Sydney Morning Herald. 28 December 2004. Archived from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2020.
- ^ "Home". Islamic Relief USA. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ "Indonesia quake toll jumps again". BBC News. 25 January 2005. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ a b "Myanmar is withholding true casualties figures, says Thai priest". AsiaNews.it. 4 January 2005. Archived from the original on 9 October 2006. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
A missioner in Ranong, a town on the border between Thailand and Myanmar, says locals talk about 600 victims. Burmese political dissidents say the same.
- ^ "Hundreds of thousands of people killed as tsunamis devastate large swathes of South and Southeast Asia, coming as far as South Africa | South African History Online". www.sahistory.org.za. Archived from the original on 15 November 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
- ^ "Most tsunami dead female – Oxfam". BBC News. 26 March 2005. Archived from the original on 26 July 2008. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "A2/2004Y Aasian luonnonkatastrofi 26.12.2004" (in Finnish). Onnettomuustutkintakeskus. 26 December 2004. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
- S2CID 110185015.
- ^ "One year after the tsunami, Sri Lankan survivors still live in squalour". World Socialist Web Site. 29 December 2005. Archived from the original on 23 November 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "TsunamiMemorial.or.th". 28 September 2007. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- S2CID 25251413.
- ^ Martin Plaut (26 December 2005). "Tsunami: Somalia's slow recovery". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 December 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Somalia, Thailand: Earthquake and Tsunami OCHA Situation Report No. 14". Reliefweb.int. Archived from the original on 7 May 2008. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ "Asia-Pacific | 'Hundreds feared dead' in Burma". BBC News. 4 January 2005. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "TsunamiMaldives.mv". Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ UNICEF (May 2006). "The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Disaster: Evaluation of UNICEF's response (emergency and recovery phase). Maldives Report" (PDF). p. i. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- ^ [email protected] (13 January 2005). "Death toll in Asian tsunami disaster tops 159,000". People's Daily. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ "Killer Waves". Channelnewsasia.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "Asian tsunami death toll passes 144,000". Australia: ABC. 3 January 2005. Archived from the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ "The Seychelles raises its voice". 4 November 2005. Archived from the original on 6 May 2008. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ "Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Initial Findings" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2006. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- .
- (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- ^ "YEMEN: Tsunami damage over US$1 million – UNEP assessment". Irinnews.org. 22 February 2005. Archived from the original on 26 March 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "Tsunami devastates Somali island". BBC News. 29 December 2004. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "Impact of Tsunamis on Ecosystems". United Nations Atlas of the Oceans. 10 March 2005. Archived from the original on 20 August 2008.
- ^ a b c "Helping restore the quality of drinking water after the tsunami" (PDF). Success Stories (10). International Water Management Institute. 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- ^ Water sanitation and health: WHO technical notes for emergencies. Archived 12 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine Page. Retrieved 25 February 2011
- ^ "Indian Ocean tsunami". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Australian Government. 19 December 2014. Archived from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- ^ Australia's response to the Indian Ocean tsunami REPORT FOR THE PERIOD ENDING 30 JUNE 2005 (PDF). Commonwealth of Australia. 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- ^ "Environmental Issues Emerging from Wreckage of Asian Tsunami". United Nations. 30 December 2004. Archived from the original on 11 January 2005. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) - ^ UNEP Post-Tsunami Recover y Activities 2004-2007 (PDF). UNEP Post-Tsunami Recover y Activities 2004-2007 United Nations Environment Programme. 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- ^ "United Nations Environment Programme; Environment for Development". Archived from the original on 12 April 2006. Retrieved 22 April 2006.
- from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- JSTOR 40574342.
- ^ Pearce, Fred. "Tsunami's salt water may leave islands uninhabitable." New Scientist. 5 January 2005. Archived 22 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Tsunamis Devastate Fisherfolk of Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea". www.ukabc.org. Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
- ^ "Impacts of the Tsunami on Fisheries, Aquaculture and Coastal Livelihoods" (PDF). reliefweb. 7 January 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
- ^ "Food supply and food security situation in countries affected by the Asia tsunami – Indonesia". ReliefWeb. 18 February 2005. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
- ^ "Demand for FRP boats rise after tsunami" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2011. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- (PDF) from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2019.
- ^ Chapter 6, "Thailand", in Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley, The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA: Edward Elgar, 2010.
- ^ Staff Writer. "Tsunami redrew ship channels, ocean floor Archived 24 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine." NBC News/Associated Press. 5 January 2005.
- ^ Birchard, Emma Louise (2020). "Piracy in the Strait of Malacca: The geopolitical background behind piracy and its impacts on Global Financial Centres" (PDF). Radboud University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
- ^ Palmer, Jason (29 October 2008). "Tsunami in 2004 'not the first'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
- ^ "Researchers uncover 2004 tsunami predecessor". ABC Radio Australia News. 30 October 2008. Archived from the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ "Scientists Find Evidence of Tsunamis on Indian Ocean Shores Long Before 2004". Newswise.com. 27 October 2008. Archived from the original on 31 May 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World (Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths)". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 1 September 2009.
- (PDF) from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2013.
- ^ "The world's worst natural disasters". CBC News. 31 August 2010. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 19 October 2019.
- PMID 18633091.
- PMID 37844215.
- ^ Broadway, Bill. "Divining a Reason for Devastation Archived 14 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine." The Washington Post. 8 January 2005.
- ^ "Associated Press û Tsunami survivors cling tightly to faith across ravaged region". Media and Public Relations | Baylor University. Archived from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
- ^ "Memorandum of Understanding between Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement" (PDF). BBC News. 15 August 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 June 2006. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ "Most significant events of 2005" (PDF). BBC World Service. 30 December 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2013., and "Iraq war and tsunami top BBC poll". BBC World Service. 30 December 2005. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2013.
- ISBN 978-1412946001.
- ^ "Asia Pacific Journalism Centre – Home Page". Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 24 October 2007.
- ^ a b Press Trust of India (30 December 2004) "Alert scaled down, capping day long confusion."
- ^ a b Tran, Tina. (30 December 2004) Associated Press "False tsunami alarm sparks panic in Indian Ocean region. Archived 21 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine"
- ^ "Suspect quake forecast causes panic". The Seattle Times. Associated Press. 31 December 2004. Archived from the original on 16 October 2019. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
- ^ "Ministers Admit Handling of Tsunami Crisis Caused Suffering - Radio Sweden". Sveriges Radio. 16 February 2006. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
- ^ Tima, Raffy Jr. (12 May 2010). "'Mad' Scientist Gets Belated Recognition". Southeast Asian Press Alliance. Archived from the original on 19 March 2018.
- ^ "A "Natural Disaster" Foretold". The Internationalist. January 2005. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ "Indian Ocean Tsunami Information Center | Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System | What is IOTWS". iotic.ioc-unesco.org. Archived from the original on 27 February 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (press release). Archivedfrom the original on 27 January 2011. Retrieved 11 January 2005.
- ^ "UN upbeat on tsunami hunger aid". BBC News. 9 January 2005. Archived from the original on 12 April 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- . Retrieved 13 September 2023.
- ^ "Health Effects of Tsunamis". Natural Disasters and Severe Weather. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on 31 August 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
- ^ "United Nations: World Food Programme: Report on the Tsunami Crisis". Reliefweb.int. 4 November 2005. Archived from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
- ^ Chapter 3, "The matter of money", in Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley, "The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster" Archived 22 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA: Edward Elgar, 2010.
- ^ Staff Writer (27 January 2005). "Tsunami aid: Who's giving what". BBC News. Archived from the original on 22 June 2006. Retrieved 22 April 2006.
- ^ Tanvi Madan (16 November 2017). "The Rise, Fall, and Rebirth of the 'Quad'". War on the Rocks. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2021.
- ^ Staff Writer. "Clinton, Bush: Tsunami Aid Helping Archived 15 January 2006 at the Wayback Machine." The Early Show/CBS News. 21 February 2005.
- ^ Staff Writer. "Tsunami aid shortfall over $4bn Archived 12 September 2005 at the Wayback Machine." BBC News. 18 March 2005.
- PMID 17367371.
- ^ Flint, Michael (July 2006). "Funding the Tsunami Response" (PDF). United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 January 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
- from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
- ISBN 978-0-9549899-0-3. Archivedfrom the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 16 October 2019.
- ^ "Book Review: The Killing Sea by Richard Lewis". The Therapeutic Care Journal. 1 December 2006. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
External links
- ReliefWeb's main page for this event.
- The Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake. Archived 21 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine – IRIS Consortium.
- M9.1 Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake & Tsunami, 2004 – Amateur Seismic Centre (ASC) (archived 21 January 2007)
- Asian Tsunami Anniversary – Thailand Tsunami Then and Now Comparison Series – Zoriah Miller
- "Compilation of videos that show the moment the quake and the subsequent tsunami hit" on YouTube
- The International Seismological Centre has a bibliography and/or authoritative data for this event.