2 Maccabees
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2 Maccabees,[note 1] also known as the Second Book of Maccabees, Second Maccabees, and abbreviated as 2 Macc., is a deuterocanonical book which recounts the persecution of Jews under King Antiochus IV Epiphanes and the Maccabean Revolt against him. It concludes with the defeat of the Seleucid Empire general Nicanor in 161 BC by Judas Maccabeus, the leader of the Maccabees.
2 Maccabees was originally written in
The book, like the other
Authorship and composition date
The author of 2 Maccabees is not identified, but he claims to be
The author appears to be an Egyptian Jew, possibly writing from the capital in
Contents
Summary
2 Maccabees both starts and ends its history earlier than 1 Maccabees does, instead covering the period from the high priest Onias III and King Seleucus IV (180 BC) to the defeat of Nicanor in 161. The exact focus of the work is debated. All agree that the work has a moralistic tenor, showing the triumph of Judaism, the supremacy of God, and the just punishment of villains. Some see it as a paean to Judas Maccabeus personally, describing the background of the Revolt to write a biography praising him; some see its focus as the Second Temple, showing its gradual corruption by Antiochus IV and how it was saved and purified;[9] others see the focus as the city of Jerusalem and how it was saved;[10] and others disagree with all of the above, seeing it as written strictly for literary and entertainment value.
The author is interested in providing a theological interpretation of the events; in this book God's interventions direct the course of events, punishing the wicked and restoring the Temple to his people. Some events appear to be presented out of strict chronological order to make theological points, such as the occasional "
After the introductory stories of the controversies at the Temple and the persecutions of Antiochus IV, the story switches to its narrative of the Revolt itself. After the death of
Structure
2 Maccabees consists of 15 chapters.
- 1:1–2:18: Two letters to the Jews of Egypt.
- 2:19–32: Epitomist's preface.
- Chapter 3: Heliodorus attempts to tax the Temple of Jerusalem's treasury, but is repelled. (~178 BC)
- Chapter 4: High Priest Onias III of the Temple of Jerusalem is succeeded by his brother Jason; Jason is then succeeded by the corrupt Menelaus; Onias III is murdered. (~175–170 BC)
- Sixth Syrian Warin Egypt, defeats Jason's supporters, sacks Jerusalem, loots the Temple treasury, and kills and enslaves local Jews as retribution for the perceived revolt. Jason is forced into exile. (168 BC)
- Chapter 6: The Temple is converted into syncretic Greek-Jewish worship site. Antiochus IV issues decrees forbidding traditional Jewish practices, such as circumcision, keeping kosher, and keeping the Sabbath. Eleazar the scribe is tortured and killed after refusing to eat pork. (168–167 BC)
- Chapter 7: Martyrdom of the woman and her seven sons after torture by Antiochus IV.
- Chapter 8: Start of the Maccabean Revolt. Judas Maccabeus defeats Nicanor, Gorgias, and Ptolemy son of Dorymenes at the Battle of Emmaus. (~166–165 BC)
- 9:1–10:9: Antiochus IV is stricken with disease by God. He belatedly repents and writes a letter attempting to make peace before dying in Persia. Judas conquers Jerusalem, cleanses the Temple, and establishes the festival of Hanukkah. (~164 BC)
- Timothy of Ammonand others. (~163 BC)
- Chapter 11: Lysias leads a military expedition to Judea. Judas defeats him at the Battle of Beth Zur. Four documents detailing negotiations with Lysias and the Roman Republic. (~160s BC)
- Chapter 12: More accounts of the campaigns in outlying regions against Timothy, Gorgias, and others. (~163 BC)
- Chapter 13: Lysias orders the execution of unpopular High Priest Menelaus. Judas harries Lysias's expedition with minor victories. Lysias leaves and returns to the capital of Antioch to face the usurper Philip. (~163–162 BC, likely near in time to the Battle of Beth Zechariah described in 1 Maccabees)
- 14:1–15:36: Demetrius I becomes King. Alcimus, who had replaced Menelaus as High Priest, is affirmed by Demetrius I. Nicanor is appointed governor of Judea. Nicanor and Judas enter negotiations for peace, but are subverted by Alcimus, who complains to the king; Judas's arrest is ordered. Nicanor threatens to destroy the Temple. In a dream vision, Onias III and the prophet Jeremiah give Judas a divine golden sword. At the Battle of Adasa, Judas defeats and kills Nicanor, preserving the sanctity of the Temple. The Day of Nicanor festival is established. (~161 BC)
- 15:37–39: Epitomist's epilogue.
Canonicity and theology
The
Hellenistic Judaism
Greek-speaking Jews were the original audience addressed by the work. Both 1 and 2 Maccabees appear in some manuscripts of the
Traditionally, it was hypothesized that the author of 2 Maccabees might have been influenced by the
The theology of the work is an update to the "Deuteronomist" history seen in older Jewish works. The classical Deuteronomist view had been that when Israel is faithful and upholds the covenant, the Jews prosper; when Israel neglects the covenant, God withdraws his favor, and Israel suffers. The persecution of Antiochus IV stood in direct contradiction to this tradition: the most faithful Jews were the ones who suffered the most, while those who abandoned Jewish practices became wealthy and powerful. The author of 2 Maccabees attempts to make sense of this in several ways: he explains that the suffering was a swift and merciful corrective to set the Jews back on the right path. While God had revoked his protection of the Temple in anger at the impious High Priests, his wrath turns to mercy upon seeing the suffering of the martyrs. The work also takes pains to ensure that when setbacks occur, some sort of sin or error was at fault. For those truly blameless, such as the martyrs, the author invokes life after death: that post-mortem rewards and punishments would accomplish what might have been lacking in the mortal world.[24][25] These references to the resurrection of the dead despite suffering and torture were part of a new current in Judaism also seen in the Book of Daniel, a work the authors of 2 Maccabees were likely familiar with.[26] This would prove especially influential among Roman-era Jews who converted to Christianity.[27][24]
Christianity in the era of the Roman Empire
In the
Pope Innocent I (405 AD),[29][30] the Synod of Hippo (393 AD),[31] the Council of Carthage (397 AD),[32] the Council of Carthage (419 AD),[33] and the Apostolic Canons[34] all seemed to think that 2 Maccabees was canonical, either by explicitly saying so or citing it as scripture. Jerome and Augustine of Hippo (c. 397 AD) had seemingly inconsistent positions: they directly excluded 2 Maccabees from canon, but did say that the book was useful; yet in other works, both cited 2 Maccabees as if it was scripture, or lists it among scriptural works.[35][36]
Theologically, the major aspects of 2 Maccabees that resonated with Roman-era Christians and medieval Christians were its stories of
Controversy in the Reformation era
2 Maccabees was in a position of being an official part of the canon, but as a deuterocanonical work and thus subtly lesser than the older scriptures during the early 1500s.
The book became controversial due to opposition from
In response to this, the Catholic Church went the opposite direction. While earlier Church Fathers had considered the deuterocanonical books useful but lesser than the main scriptures, the Catholic Church now affirmed that 2 Maccabees (and other deuterocanonical works) were in fact fully reliable as scripture at the Council of Trent in 1546.[50][51][42][52]
Modern status
2 Maccabees is still used to endorse the doctrine of resurrection of the dead, intercession of saints, and prayers for the dead to be released from purgatory in the Catholic tradition.
The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches consider the book canonical. As in antiquity, the most notable section remains the martyrs, who are celebrated as saints by a variety of feast days. They are especially honored in Syriac Christianity, perhaps due to suffering persecution themselves; the mother of seven sons is known as Marth Shmouni in that tradition.[55][56]
In the Protestant tradition, the book remains non-canonical.[57] Many Protestant Bibles stopped including the apocrypha, leading to a loss of relevance for 2 Maccabees. Still, the book is treated at least somewhat respectfully. The twentieth century evangelical author James B. Jordan, for example, argues that while 1 Maccabees "was written to try and show the Maccabean usurpers as true heirs of David and as true High Priests" and is a "wicked book", a "far more accurate picture of the situation is given in 2 Maccabees."[58]
Article VI of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England and the wider Anglican Communion defines 2 Maccabees as useful but not the basis of doctrine.[59]
The texts regarding the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 2 Maccabees are held in high esteem by the
Literary influence
The most influential part of 2 Maccabees was its stories of the martyrdom of Eleazar and the woman with seven sons; various works expanded the story to add more details such as the woman's name (variously called Hannah, Miriam, Shmouni, and other names) and their story. A prominent early example is the book of
To a lesser degree, the book 3 Maccabees evinces familiarity with 2 Maccabees; while the setting is different (it is set fifty years before the Maccabean Revolt in Egypt, not Judea), Eleazar the scribe appears in it, and the depictions of turmoil and suffering among Egyptian Jews are influenced by 2 Maccabees. The Christian Epistle to the Hebrews possibly makes a reference to 2 Maccabees as well, or has similar knowledge of the Maccabean martyr tradition.[62][63]
A later work that directly expanded 2 Maccabees was the
Reliability as history
2 Maccabees has traditionally been considered a somewhat lesser source on the history of the Maccabean Revolt than 1 Maccabees by secular historians, especially in the 19th century. This is for a number of reasons: it wears its religious moralizing openly; it skips around in time and place at parts, rather than the chronological approach in 1 Maccabees; and it includes a number of implausible claims directly in contention with 1 Maccabees.[21] In general, most scholars continue to agree that 1 Maccabees is a superior source on the military history of the revolt: it was written by a Judean who names and describes locations accurately compared to the occasional geographic blunders of 2 Maccabees written by an Egyptian, includes far more details on maneuvers and tactics than the simple depictions of battle in 2 Maccabees, and its figures for elements such as troop counts and casualties are considered more reliable than the wildly inflated numbers in 2 Maccabees. (For example, 2 Maccabees implausibly claims that there were 35,000 Syrian casualties at the Battle of Adasa, a number likely far larger than the entire Seleucid force.[67]) 2 Maccabees was also written in a "pathetic" in the sense of pathos style, appealing to emotions and sentiment.[68] Skeptical historians considered this a sign that the epitomist was not interested in historical accuracy much, but merely telling a good story.[7][69]
In the 20th century, there was a renewed interest in rehabilitating 2 Maccabees as a source on par with 1 Maccabees by scholars. In particular, there was a growing recognition that a politically slanted history, as 1 Maccabees is, could be just as biased and unreliable as the religiously slanted history that 2 Maccabees is.[70] A deeply devout observer could still be describing true events, albeit with a religious interpretation of them. By the 1930s, historians generally came to the conclusion that the historical documents present in 2 Maccabees - while seemingly out of chronological order - were likely legitimate and matched what would be expected of such Seleucid negotiations.[69] Archaeological evidence supported many of the references made to Seleucid leadership, causing historians to think that Jason and the epitomist must have had better knowledge of internal Seleucid affairs than the author of 1 Maccabees.[71] As an example, 2 Maccabees appears to be more reliable and honest on the date of the death of Antiochus IV. Archaeological evidence supports the claim in 2 Maccabees he died before the cleansing of the Temple, while 1 Maccabees moves his death later to hide the fact that Lysias abandoned his campaign in Judea not due to the efforts of the Maccabees at the Battle of Beth Zur, but rather to respond to political turmoil resulting from Antiochus's death. 2 Maccabees writes that Antiochus's decrees were targeted against Judea and Samaria, which historians find more likely than the claim in 1 Maccabees that he demanded religious standardization across the entire empire.[72]
Even to the extent that 2 Maccabees is still distrusted as history to a degree, the fact that it is a genuinely independent source is considered invaluable to historians. Many events in the Hellenistic and Roman periods have only passing mentions that they occurred; those that do have a detailed source often only have a single such detailed source, leaving it difficult to determine that author's biases or errors. For example, the
Manuscripts
Early manuscripts of the Septuagint were not uniform in their lists of books.
Notes
- ^ Greek: Μακκαβαίων Β´, romanized: Makkabaíōn 2
- ^ Since 2 Maccabees is largely an abridgment of another's work, the person who wrote 2 Maccabees is often referred to as "epitomist" or "epitomator" rather than "author".
- ^ Scholarly estimates for the date of authorship include:
- Daniel R. Schwartz argues for an "early" date of publication of around 150–140 BC.[3]
- Stuckenbruck & Gurtner argue for between 150–120 BC.[4]
- Jonathan A. Goldstein argues for Jason of Cyrene's history published at some time during the reign of Alexander Jannaeus (103 to 76 BC), and the abridged 2 Maccabees with the introductory letters by 76 BC.[5]
- John R. Bartlett argues for "almost anywhere in the last 150 years B.C."[6]
- ^ Although the scholarly consensus is not entirely unanimous; Sylvie Honigman argues it was written in the Hasmonean kingdom rather than Egypt, and its portrayal of Judas's brother Simon Thassi was still positive overall. This view is usually discounted as 2 Maccabees is seen as downplaying Simon, along with various geographic mistakes that suggest a diaspora author.[7]
- ^ Few scholars believe the introductory letters to be authentic, but some do suggest that they were compiled by the same epitomist who made the rest of the work. Some notable scholarly positions include: Benedikt Niese believed that the letters were integral to the work. Jonathan Goldstein considers the letters forgeries and later additions. Daniel R. Schwartz believes that they are a later addition, and further that the date was actually 148 SE, not 188 SE, and was a reference not to the date of the letter, but the date of the original cleansing of the Temple.[8]
References
- ^ 2 Maccabees 2:23
- ^ ISBN 9780190689667.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 8–15.
- ISBN 9780567658135. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
- ^ Goldstein 1983, p. 121–122.
- ^ a b c Bartlett 1973, p. 215–219.
- ^ ISBN 9780520958180.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 519–525.
- ^ Harrington 2009, p. 36–38.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, pp. 3, 512.
- ^ 2 Maccabees 15:36
- ^ Koller, A., Purim, accessed 17 January 2021
- ^ Life after death: a history of the afterlife in the religions of the West (2004), Anchor Bible Reference Library, Alan F. Segal, p. 363
- ISBN 978-1592442560.
- ^ Goldstein 1983, p. 27.
- ^ a b Schwartz 2008, p. 86.
- ISBN 978-0802824004.
- ISBN 978-0060684655.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 58-61.
- Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ^ a b Oesterley, William O. E. (1935). An Introduction to the Books of the Apocrypha. New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 315–326.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 168, 442.
- ^ Bar-Kochva 1989, p. 571–572.
- ^ ISBN 9780190689667.
- ISBN 9781501136757.
- ^ Goldstein 1983, p. 63–70.
- ^ Harrington 2009, p. 129–130.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-21104-9.
- ^ "Letter of Innocent I on the Canon of Scripture". www.bible-researcher.com.
- ISBN 1597522392.
- ^ "Canon XXIV. (Greek xxvii.)", The Canons of the 217 Blessed Fathers who assembled at Carthage, Christian Classics Ethereal Library
- ^ B.F. Westcott, A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament (5th ed. Edinburgh, 1881), pp. 440, 541–42.
- ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: Council of Carthage (A.D. 419)". www.newadvent.org.
- ^ Council in Trullo. The Apostolic Canons. Canon 85. newadvent. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
- ^ Augustine of Hippo. On Christian Doctrine Book II Chapter 8:2. newadvent. Retrieved 12 October 2016.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 59.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-21104-9.
- ISBN 978-90-04-21104-9.
- ISBN 978-0-230-60279-3.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 87-89.
- ^ RKD Netherlands Institute for Art History: Peter Paul Rubens and studio of Peter Paul Rubens. See 2 Maccabees 12:39–45.
- ^ ISBN 0-226-65376-5.
- ^ 2 Maccabees 15:12–16
- ISBN 978-1563383403.
- ISBN 978-0664233570.
- ^ 2 Maccabees 12:39–45
- LCC BR332.T4.
- ^ a b Schwartz 2008, p. 60–61.
- ISBN 9781598561685.
- ^ New Catholic encyclopedia. Vol. 3. Washington, D.C: Catholic University of America. 2003. pp. 20, 26, 390.
- ISBN 0-19-826954-4..
Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstentions, the Council issued a decree (De Canonicis Scripturis) in which, for the first time in the history of the Church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema
- ^ Buckley, Theodore Alois. 1851 [1546] – via Wikisource. [scan ] . Translated by
- ^ Ellis, P. F. (2003). "Maccabees, Books of". New Catholic Encyclopedia (Second ed.). Washington, DC: Thomson Gale.
- ^ Roman Missal, Lectionary, Revised Edition approved for use in the dioceses of England and Wales, Scotland, Ireland, published by Collins, Geoffrey Chapman and Veritas, 1981, 1982, volumes 2 and 3
- ^ St Shmouni and her Seven Sons – Martyrs – 1 August
- ISBN 9780631234234.
- ISBN 978-0-664-25380-6.
The Reformers countered by pointing out that 2 Maccabees was a book of the Apocrypha; Protestants would accept as authoritative Old Testament only the canon of the Hebrew scriptures. ... The Reformers did grant that the Apocrypha was valuable. ... these books, while useful "for edification," were not authoritative for doctrine.
- ^ Jordan, James B. (2007). The Handwriting on the Wall: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. American Vision. p. 580.
- ^ "Articles of Religion". The Church of England. Retrieved March 5, 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-4934-1307-2.
- ^ Goldstein 1983, p. 26.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 88. See Hebrews 11:35–36
- ISBN 0-567-08737-9.
- ^ ISBN 978-90-04-21104-9.
- ^ Stemberger, Günter (1992). "The Maccabees in Rabbinic Tradition". The Scriptures and the Scrolls: Studies in Honour of A.S. van der Woude on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday. E. J. Brill. p. 192–203.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 90.
- ^ Bar-Kochva 1989, p. 360.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 78–80.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-5676-9294-8.
- ^ Doran 2012, p. 3; 519–520.
- ^ Schwartz 2008, p. 40–44.
- ISBN 9780802870834.
- ISBN 978-0802484345.
- ^ ISBN 3-525-53405-1.
- ^ Doran 2012, p. 19.
Bibliography
- ISBN 0521323525.
- Bartlett, John R. (1973). The First and Second Books of the Maccabees. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- ISBN 9780800660505.
- ISBN 978-1-60899-113-6.
- ISBN 0-385-04864-5.
- ISBN 978-3-11-019118-9.
Further reading
- Borchardt, Francis. 2016. "Reading Aid: 2 Maccabees and the History of Jason of Cyrene Reconsidered." Journal for the Study of Judaism 47, no. 1: 71–87.
- Coetzer, Eugene. 2016. "Heroes and Villains in 2 Maccabees 8:1–36: A Rhetorical Analysis." Old Testament Essays: 419–33.
- Doran, Robert. 1981. Temple Propaganda: The Purpose and Character of 2 Maccabees. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 12. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association.
- Habicht, C. 1976. "Royal Documents in II Maccabees." Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 80: 1–18.
- Janowitz, Naomi. 2017. The Family Romance of Martyrdom In Second Maccabees. New York: Routledge.
- Kosmin, P. 2016. "Indigenous Revolts in 2 Maccabees: The Persian Version." Classical Philology 111, no. 1: 32–53.
- Stewart, Tyler A. 2017. "Jewish Paideia: Greek Education in the Letter of Aristeas and 2 Maccabees." Journal for the Study of Judaism 48, no. 2: 182–202.
- Trotter, Jonathan R. 2017. "2 Maccabees 10:1–8: Who Wrote It and Where Does It Belong?" Journal of Biblical Literature 136, no. 1: 117–30.
External links
- NRSV text of 2 Maccabees: 2 Maccabees 1:1–7:42, 2 Maccabees 8:1–11:38, 2 Maccabees 12:1–15:39
- Works related to 2 Maccabees at Wikisource
- 2 Maccabees public domain audiobook at LibriVox