Compact disc
MiB (and up to 99 minutes audio) | |
Read mechanism | 780 nm wavelength, 800 nm wavelength, 870 nm wavelength (infrared and red edge) semiconductor laser (early players used helium–neon lasers),[1] 1,200 Kbit/s (1×) |
---|---|
Write mechanism | 780 nm wavelength, 800 nm wavelength, 870 nm wavelength (infrared and red edge) semiconductor laser in recordable formats CD-R and CD-RW, pressed mold (stamper) in read only formats |
Standard | Rainbow Books |
Developed by | Philips, Sony |
Dimensions | Diameter: 120 mm (4.7 in) Thickness: 1.2 mm (0.047 in) |
Usage | Audio and data storage |
Extended from | LaserDisc |
Extended to | |
Released |
|
Optical discs |
---|
The compact disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format that was co-developed by Philips and Sony to store and play digital audio recordings. The first compact disc was manufactured in August 1982, and was first released in Japan in October 1982 as Compact Disc Digital Audio. The CD was more compact than the LaserDisc (LD) developed in the 1970s. The CD gained rapid popularity in the 1990s. It quickly outsold all other audio formats in the United States by 1991, ending the market dominance of the phonograph record and the cassette tape. By 2000, the CD accounted for 92.3% of the entire market share in regard to music sales.[3] The CD is considered the last dominant audio format of the album era, as the rise of MP3, iTunes, cellular ringtones, and other downloadable music formats in the mid-2000s ended the decade-long dominance of the CD.[4]
The Digital Audio format was later adapted (as
Standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres (4.7 in) and are designed to hold up to 74 minutes of uncompressed
At the time of the technology's introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard disk drive, which would typically hold 10 MiB. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much storage space as a thousand CDs, while their prices had plummeted to commodity levels. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs, and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs. By 2007, 200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide.[5]
History
The optophone, first presented in 1931, was an early device that used light for both recording and playback of sound signals on a transparent photograph.[6] More than thirty years later, American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record digital media on a photosensitive plate. Russell's patent application was filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970.[7] Following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russell's patents for recording in 1988.[8][9] It is debatable whether Russell's concepts, patents, and prototypes instigated and in some measure influenced the compact disc's design.[10]
The compact disc is an evolution of
Digital audio laser-disc prototypes
In 1974, Lou Ottens, director of the audio division of Philips, started a small group to develop an analog optical audio disc with a diameter of 20 cm (7.9 in) and a sound quality superior to that of the vinyl record.[19] However, due to the unsatisfactory performance of the analog format, two Philips research engineers recommended a digital format in March 1974. In 1977, Philips then established a laboratory with the mission of creating a digital audio disc. The diameter of Philips's prototype compact disc was set at 11.5 cm (4.5 in), the diagonal of an audio cassette.[11][20]
Collaboration and standardization
In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new digital audio disc. Led by engineers Kees Schouhamer Immink and Toshitada Doi, the research pushed forward laser and optical disc technology.[27] After a year of experimentation and discussion, the task force produced the Red Book CD-DA standard. First published in 1980, the standard was formally adopted by the IEC as an international standard in 1987, with various amendments becoming part of the standard in 1996.[citation needed]
Philips coined the term compact disc in line with another audio product, the
The Compact Disc Story,[29] told by a former member of the task force, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc diameter. The task force consisted of around 6 persons,[13][30] though according to Philips, the compact disc was "invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team."[31]
Initial launch and adoption
Early milestones in the launch and adoption of the format included:
- The first test pressing was of a recording of Richard Strauss's An Alpine Symphony, recorded December 1–3, 1980 and played by the Berlin Philharmonic and conducted by Herbert von Karajan, who had been enlisted as an ambassador for the format in 1979.[32]
- The world presentation took place during the Salzburg Easter Festival on 15 April 1981, at a press conference of Akio Morita and Norio Ohga (Sony), Joop van Tilburg (Philips), and Richard Busch (PolyGram), in the presence of Karajan who praised the new format.[33]
- The first public demonstration was on the BBC television programme Tomorrow's World in 1981, when the Bee Gees' album Living Eyes (1981) was played.[34]
- The first commercial compact disc was produced on 17 August 1982, a 1979 recording of Chopin waltzes performed by Claudio Arrau.[35]
- The first 50 titles were released in Japan on 1 October 1982,[36] the first of which was a re-release of the Billy Joel album 52nd Street.[37]
- The first CD played on BBC Radio was in October 1982 on BBC Radio Scotland (Love Over Gold.[38]
- The Japanese launch was followed on 14 March 1983 by the introduction of CD players and discs to Europe[39] and North America where CBS Records released sixteen titles.[40]
The first artist to sell a million copies on CD was Dire Straits, with their 1985 album Brothers in Arms.[41] One of the first CD markets was devoted to reissuing popular music whose commercial potential was already proven. The first major artist to have their entire catalog converted to CD was David Bowie, whose first fourteen studio albums of (then) sixteen were made available by RCA Records in February 1985, along with four greatest hits albums; his fifteenth and sixteenth albums had already been issued on CD by EMI Records in 1983 and 1984, respectively.[42] On 26 February 1987, the first four UK albums by the Beatles were released in mono on compact disc.[43]
The growing acceptance of the CD in 1983 marks the beginning of the popular digital audio revolution.
Further development
Early CD players employed binary-weighted digital-to-analog converters (DAC), which contained individual electrical components for each bit of the DAC.[47] Even when using high-precision components, this approach was prone to decoding errors.[clarification needed][47] Another issue was jitter, a time-related defect. Confronted with the instability of DACs, manufacturers initially turned to increasing the number of bits in the DAC and using several DACs per audio channel, averaging their output.[47] This increased the cost of CD players but did not solve the core problem.
A breakthrough in the late 1980s culminated in development of the 1-bit DAC, which converts high-resolution low-frequency digital input signal into a lower-resolution high-frequency signal that is mapped to voltages and then smoothed with an analog filter. The temporary use of a lower-resolution signal simplified circuit design and improved efficiency, which is why it became dominant in CD players starting from the early 1990s. Philips used a variation of this technique called pulse-density modulation (PDM),[48] while Matsushita (now Panasonic) chose pulse-width modulation (PWM), advertising it as MASH, which is an acronym derived from their patented Multi-stAge noiSe-sHaping PWM topology.[47]
The CD was primarily planned as the successor to the
CD sales in the United States peaked by 2000.
Other newer video formats such as
Decline
With the advent and popularity of
During the 2010s, the increasing popularity of solid-state media and music streaming services caused automakers to remove automotive CD players in favor of
Despite rapidly declining sales year-over-year, the pervasiveness of the technology lingered for a time, with companies placing CDs in pharmacies, supermarkets, and filling station convenience stores to target buyers less likely to be able to use Internet-based distribution.[14] In 2018, Best Buy announced plans to decrease their focus on CD sales, however, while continuing to sell records, sales of which are growing during the vinyl revival.[59][60][61] CDs continued to be strong in some markets such as Japan where 132 million units were produced in 2019.[62]
The decline in CD sales has slowed in recent years; in 2021, CD sales increased in the US for the first time since 2004,[63] with Axios citing its rise to "young people who are finding they like hard copies of music in the digital age".[64] It came at the same time as both vinyl and cassette reached sales levels not seen in 30 years.[65]
Awards and accolades
Sony and Philips received praise for the development of the compact disc from professional organizations. These awards include:
- Technical Grammy Award for Sony and Philips, 1998.[66]
- IEEE Milestone award, 2009, for Philips alone with the citation: "On 8 March 1979, N.V. Philips' Gloeilampenfabrieken demonstrated for the international press a Compact Disc Audio Player. The demonstration showed that it is possible by using digital optical recording and playback to reproduce audio signals with superb stereo quality. This research at Philips established the technical standard for digital optical recording systems."[67]
Physical details
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2016) |
A CD is made from 1.2-millimetre (0.047 in) thick, polycarbonate plastic, and weighs 14–33 grams.[68] From the center outward, components are: the center spindle hole (15 mm), the first-transition area (clamping ring), the clamping area (stacking ring), the second-transition area (mirror band), the program (data) area, and the rim. The inner program area occupies a radius from 25 to 58 mm.
A thin layer of
CD data is represented as tiny indentations known as pits, encoded in a spiral track molded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. The areas between pits are known as lands. Each pit is approximately 100 nm deep by 500 nm wide, and varies from 850 nm to 3.5 µm in length.[69] The distance between the windings (the pitch) is 1.6 µm (measured center-to-center, not between the edges).[70][71][72]
When playing an audio CD, a motor within the CD player spins the disc to a scanning velocity of 1.2–1.4 m/s (constant linear velocity, CLV)—equivalent to approximately 500 RPM at the inside of the disc, and approximately 200 RPM at the outside edge.[73] The track on the CD begins at the inside and spirals outward so a disc played from beginning to end slows its rotation rate during playback.
The program area is 86.05 cm2 and the length of the recordable spiral is 86.05 cm2 / 1.6 µm = 5.38 km. With a scanning speed of 1.2 m/s, the playing time is 74 minutes or 650 MiB of data on a CD-ROM. A disc with data packed slightly more densely is tolerated by most players (though some old ones fail). Using a linear velocity of 1.2 m/s and a narrower track pitch of 1.5 µm increases the playing time to 80 minutes, and data capacity to 700 MiB. Even denser tracks are possible, with semi-standard 90 minute/800 MiB discs having 1.33 µm, and 99 minute/870 MiB having 1.26 µm,[74] but compatibility suffers as density increases.
A CD is read by focusing a 780 nm
To accommodate the spiral pattern of data, the laser is placed on a mobile mechanism within the disc tray of any CD player. This mechanism typically takes the form of a sled that moves along a rail. The sled can be driven by a
The pits and lands do not directly represent the 0s and 1s of
Integrity
CDs are susceptible to damage during handling and from environmental exposure. Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc, enabling defects and contaminants on the clear side to be out of focus during playback. Consequently, CDs are more likely to suffer damage on the label side of the disc. Scratches on the clear side can be repaired by refilling them with similar refractive plastic or by careful polishing. The edges of CDs are sometimes incompletely sealed, allowing gases and liquids to enter the CD and corrode the metal reflective layer and/or interfere with the focus of the laser on the pits, a condition known as disc rot.[76] The fungus Geotrichum candidum has been found—under conditions of high heat and humidity—to consume the polycarbonate plastic and aluminium found in CDs.[77][78]
The
Error scanning can reliably predict data losses caused by media deterioration. Support of error scanning differs between vendors and models of
Disc shapes and diameters
The digital data on a CD begins at the center of the disc and proceeds toward the edge, which allows adaptation to the different sizes available. Standard CDs are available in two sizes. By far, the most common is 120 millimetres (4.7 in) in diameter, with a 74-, 80, 90, or 99-minute audio capacity and a 650, 700, 800, or 870 MiB (737,280,000-byte) data capacity. Discs are 1.2 millimetres (0.047 in) thick, with a 15 millimetres (0.59 in) center hole. The size of the hole was chosen by Joop Sinjou and based on a Dutch 10-cent coin: a dubbeltje.[81] Philips/Sony patented the physical dimensions.[82]
The official Philips history says the capacity was specified by Sony executive
Physical size | Audio capacity | CD-ROM data capacity | Definition |
---|---|---|---|
120 mm | 74–80 min | 650–700 MB | Standard size |
80 mm | 21–24 min | 185–210 MB | Mini-CD size |
80×54 mm – 80×64 mm | ~6 min | 10–65 MB | "Business card" size |
Logical format
Audio CD
The logical format of an audio CD (officially Compact Disc Digital Audio or CD-DA) is described in a document produced in 1980 by the format's joint creators, Sony and Philips.
CD-Text is an extension of the Red Book specification for an audio CD that allows for the storage of additional text information (e.g., album name, song name, artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored either in the lead-in area of the CD, where there are roughly five kilobytes of space available or in the subcode channels R to W on the disc, which can store about 31 megabytes.
Super Audio CD
Super Audio CD (SACD) is a high-resolution, read-only
Titles in the SACD format can be issued as hybrid discs; these discs contain the SACD audio stream as well as a standard audio CD layer which is playable in standard CD players, thus making them backward compatible.
CD-MIDI
CD-
CD-ROM
For the first few years of its existence, the CD was a medium used purely for audio. In 1988, the Yellow Book CD-ROM standard was established by Sony and Philips, which defined a non-volatile optical data computer data storage medium using the same physical format as audio compact discs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.
Video CD
Video CD (VCD, View CD, and Compact Disc digital video) is a standard digital format for storing video media on a CD. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most modern DVD-Video players, personal computers, and some video game consoles. The VCD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the White Book standard.
Overall picture quality is intended to be comparable to VHS video. Poorly compressed VCD video can sometimes be of lower quality than VHS video, but VCD exhibits block artifacts rather than analog noise and does not deteriorate further with each use. 352×240 (or SIF) resolution was chosen because it is half the vertical and half the horizontal resolution of the NTSC video. 352×288 is a similarly one-quarter PAL/SECAM resolution. This approximates the (overall) resolution of an analog VHS tape, which, although it has double the number of (vertical) scan lines, has a much lower horizontal resolution.
Super Video CD
Super Video CD (Super Video Compact Disc or SVCD) is a format used for storing video media on standard compact discs. SVCD was intended as a successor to VCD and an alternative to DVD-Video and falls somewhere between both in terms of technical capability and picture quality.
SVCD has two-thirds the resolution of DVD, and over 2.7 times the resolution of VCD. One CD-R disc can hold up to 60 minutes of standard-quality SVCD-format video. While no specific limit on SVCD video length is mandated by the specification, one must lower the video bit rate, and therefore quality, to accommodate very long videos. It is usually difficult to fit much more than 100 minutes of video onto one SVCD without incurring a significant quality loss, and many hardware players are unable to play a video with an instantaneous bit rate lower than 300 to 600 kilobits per second.
Photo CD
Photo CD is a system designed by
CD-i
The Philips
CD-i Ready
Philips defined a format similar to CD-i called CD-i Ready, which puts CD-i software and data into the pregap of track 1. This format was supposed to be more compatible with older audio CD players.
Enhanced Music CD (CD+)
Enhanced Music CD, also known as CD Extra or CD Plus, is a format that combines
VinylDisc
VinylDisc is the hybrid of a standard audio CD and the
Manufacture, cost, and pricing
In 1995, material costs were 30 cents for the jewel case and 10 to 15 cents for the CD. The wholesale cost of CDs was $0.75 to $1.15, while the typical retail price of a prerecorded music CD was $16.98.
Writable compact discs
Recordable CD
Recordable Compact Discs,
CD-R recordings are designed to be permanent. Over time, the dye's physical characteristics may change causing read errors and data loss until the reading device cannot recover with error correction methods. Errors can be predicted using surface error scanning. The design life is from 20 to 100 years, depending on the quality of the discs, the quality of the writing drive, and storage conditions.[90] Testing has demonstrated such degradation of some discs in as little as 18 months under normal storage conditions.[91][92] This failure is known as disc rot, for which there are several, mostly environmental, reasons.[93]
The recordable audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder. These consumer audio CD recorders use SCMS (Serial Copy Management System), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the AHRA (Audio Home Recording Act). The Recordable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to lower production volume and a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.[94]
High-capacity recordable CD is a higher-density recording format that can hold 20% more data than conventional discs.[95] The higher capacity is incompatible with some recorders and recording software.[96]
ReWritable CD
CD-RW is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser, in this case, is used to heat and alter the properties (amorphous vs. crystalline) of the alloy, and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in reflectivity as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many earlier CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although most later CD audio players and stand-alone DVD players can. CD-RWs follow the Orange Book standard.
The ReWritable Audio CD is designed to be used in a consumer audio CD recorder, which will not (without modification) accept standard CD-RW discs. These consumer audio CD recorders use the Serial Copy Management System (SCMS), an early form of digital rights management (DRM), to conform to the United States' Audio Home Recording Act (AHRA). The ReWritable Audio CD is typically somewhat more expensive than CD-R due to (a) lower volume and (b) a 3 percent AHRA royalty used to compensate the music industry for the making of a copy.[94]
Copy protection
The Red Book audio specification, except for a simple "anti-copy" statement in the subcode, does not include any copy protection mechanism. Known at least as early as 2001,[97] attempts were made by record companies to market "copy-protected" non-standard compact discs, which cannot be ripped, or copied, to hard drives or easily converted to other formats (like FLAC, MP3 or Vorbis). One major drawback to these copy-protected discs is that most will not play on either computer CD-ROM drives or some standalone CD players that use CD-ROM mechanisms. Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the trademarked Compact Disc Digital Audio logo because they violate the Red Book specifications. Numerous copy-protection systems have been countered by readily available, often free, software, or even by simply turning off automatic AutoPlay to prevent the running of the DRM executable program.
See also
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- ^ a b Neil Strauss (5 July 1995). "Pennies That Add Up to $16.98: Why CD's Cost So Much – New York Times". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 11 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- ^ Amy Harmon Published: 12 October 2003 (12 October 2003). "MUSIC; What Price Music?". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
{{cite news}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ "Cost Per Gigabyte of Popular Data Storage - Infographic". Blank Media Printing. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2016.
- ^ "CD-R Unreadable in Less Than Two Years". cdfreaks.com. Archived from the original on 14 February 2007. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
- ^ "CD-R ROT". Archived from the original on 4 February 2005. Retrieved 1 February 2007.
- ^ "5. Conditions That Affect CDs and DVDs – Council on Library and Information Resources". clir.org. Archived from the original on 15 September 2016. Retrieved 5 July 2016.
- ^ a b Andy McFadden (8 August 2007). "CD-Recordable FAQ". Archived from the original on 20 September 2007. Retrieved 20 September 2007.
- ^ "Understanding CD-R & CD-RW". Osta.org. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
- ^ "CD-Recordable FAQ – Section 3". 9 January 2010. Archived from the original on 18 November 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2013.
Small quantities of 90-minute and 99-minute blanks have appeared [...] Indications are that many recorders and some software don't work with the longer discs.
- ^ Campaign For Digital Rights (5 December 2001). "Copy Protected CDs (via Archive.org)". Archived from the original on 5 December 2001.
Further reading
- Ecma International. Standard ECMA-130: Data Interchange on Read-only 120 mm Optical Data Disks (CD-ROM), 2nd edition (June 1996).
- Pohlmann, Kenneth C. (1992). The Compact Disc Handbook. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. ISBN 0-89579-300-8.
- Peek, Hans et al. (2009) Origins and Successors of the Compact Disc. Springer Science+Business Media B.V. ISBN 978-1-4020-9552-8.
- Peek, Hans B., The emergence of the compact disc, IEEE Communications Magazine, Jan. 2010, pp. 10–17.
- ISBN 4-274-03347-3.
- Barry, Robert (2020). Compact Disc (Object Lessons). New York: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-5013-4851-8.
Notes
- ^ The world's first CD-R was made by the Japanese firm Taiyo Yuden Co., Ltd. in 1988 as part of the joint Philips-Sony development effort.
External links
- Video How Compact Discs are Manufactured
- CD-Recordable FAQ Exhaustive basics on CD-Recordable's
- Philips history of the CD (cache)
- Patent History (CD Player) – published by Philips in 2005
- Patent History CD Disc – published by Philips in 2003
- Sony History, Chapter 8, This is the replacement of Gramophone record ! (第8章 レコードに代わるものはこれだ) – Sony website in Japanese
- Popularized History on Soundfountain
- A Media History of the Compact Disc (1-hour podcast interview)