A. J. Ayer
Sir A. J. Ayer emotivist ethics |
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Sir Alfred Jules "Freddie" Ayer FBA (/ɛər/ AIR;[2] 29 October 1910 – 27 June 1989)[3] was an English philosopher known for his promotion of logical positivism, particularly in his books Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) and The Problem of Knowledge (1956).
Ayer was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, after which he studied the philosophy of logical positivism at the University of Vienna. From 1933 to 1940 he lectured on philosophy at Christ Church, Oxford.[4]
During the
Ayer was
Ayer was president of the Homosexual Law Reform Society for a time; he remarked, "as a notorious heterosexual I could never be accused of feathering my own nest."
Life
Ayer was born in
Ayer was educated at
After graduating from Oxford, Ayer spent a year in Vienna, returned to England and published his first book,
In the Second World War, Ayer served as an officer in the Welsh Guards, chiefly in intelligence (Special Operations Executive (SOE) and MI6[11]). He was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Welsh Guards from the Officer Cadet Training Unit on 21 September 1940.[12]
After the war, Ayer briefly returned to the
Ayer was married four times to three women.
In 1950, Ayer attended the founding meeting of the Congress for Cultural Freedom in West Berlin, though he later said he went only because of the offer of a "free trip".[17] He gave a speech on why John Stuart Mill's conceptions of liberty and freedom were still valid in the 20th century.[17] Together with the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper, Ayer fought against Arthur Koestler and Franz Borkenau, arguing that they were far too dogmatic and extreme in their anti-communism, in fact proposing illiberal measures in the defence of liberty.[18] Adding to the tension was the location of the congress in West Berlin, together with the fact that the Korean War began on 25 June 1950, the fourth day of the congress, giving a feeling that the world was on the brink of war.[18]
From 1959 to his retirement in 1978, Ayer held the Wykeham Chair, Professor of Logic at Oxford. He was knighted in 1970. After his retirement, Ayer taught or lectured several times in the United States, including as a visiting professor at
In 1988, a year before his death, Ayer wrote an article titled "What I saw when I was dead", describing an unusual near-death experience after his heart stopped for four minutes as he choked on smoked salmon.[20] Of the experience, he first said that it "slightly weakened my conviction that my genuine death ... will be the end of me, though I continue to hope that it will be."[21] A few weeks later, he revised this, saying, "what I should have said is that my experiences have weakened, not my belief that there is no life after death, but my inflexible attitude towards that belief".[22]
Ayer died on 27 June 1989. From 1980 to 1989 he lived at 51 York Street, Marylebone, where a memorial plaque was unveiled on 19 November 1995.[23]
Philosophical ideas
In Language, Truth and Logic (1936), Ayer presents the
Ayer's version of emotivism divides "the ordinary system of ethics" into four classes:
- "Propositions that express definitions of ethical terms, or judgements about the legitimacy or possibility of certain definitions"
- "Propositions describing the phenomena of moral experience, and their causes"
- "Exhortations to moral virtue"
- "Actual ethical judgements"[29]
He focuses on propositions of the first class—moral judgements—saying that those of the second class belong to science, those of the third are mere commands, and those of the fourth (which are considered
Ayer argues that moral judgements cannot be translated into non-ethical, empirical terms and thus cannot be verified; in this he agrees with ethical intuitionists. But he differs from intuitionists by discarding appeals to intuition of non-empirical moral truths as "worthless"[29] since the intuition of one person often contradicts that of another. Instead, Ayer concludes that ethical concepts are "mere pseudo-concepts":
The presence of an ethical symbol in a proposition adds nothing to its factual content. Thus if I say to someone, "You acted wrongly in stealing that money," I am not stating anything more than if I had simply said, "You stole that money." In adding that this action is wrong I am not making any further statement about it. I am simply evincing my moral disapproval of it. It is as if I had said, "You stole that money," in a peculiar tone of horror, or written it with the addition of some special exclamation marks. … If now I generalise my previous statement and say, "Stealing money is wrong," I produce a sentence that has no factual meaning—that is, expresses no proposition that can be either true or false. … I am merely expressing certain moral sentiments.
— A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth and Logic, Ch. VI. Critique of Ethics and Theology
Between 1945 and 1947, together with Russell and George Orwell, Ayer contributed a series of articles to Polemic, a short-lived British "Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater.[30][31]
Ayer was closely associated with the British
Works
Ayer is best known for popularising the
Ayer wrote two books on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, Russell and Moore: The Analytic Heritage (1971)[37] and Russell (1972). He also wrote an introductory book on the philosophy of David Hume and a short biography of Voltaire.
Ayer was a strong critic of the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. As a logical positivist, Ayer was in conflict with Heidegger's vast, overarching theories of existence. Ayer considered them completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis, and this sort of philosophy an unfortunate strain in modern thought. He considered Heidegger the worst example of such philosophy, which Ayer believed entirely useless. In Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, Ayer accuses Heidegger of "surprising ignorance" or "unscrupulous distortion" and "what can fairly be described as charlatanism."[38]
In 1972–73, Ayer gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of St Andrews, later published as The Central Questions of Philosophy. In the book's preface, he defends his selection to hold the lectureship on the basis that Lord Gifford wished to promote "natural theology, in the widest sense of that term", and that non-believers are allowed to give the lectures if they are "able reverent men, true thinkers, sincere lovers of and earnest inquirers after truth".[39] He still believed in the viewpoint he shared with the logical positivists: that large parts of what was traditionally called philosophy—including metaphysics, theology and aesthetics—were not matters that could be judged true or false, and that it was thus meaningless to discuss them.
In The Concept of a Person and Other Essays (1963), Ayer heavily criticised
Ayer's sense-data theory in Foundations of Empirical Knowledge was famously criticised by fellow Oxonian
Awards
Ayer was awarded a knighthood as Knight Bachelor in the London Gazette on 1 January 1970.[41]
Collections
Ayer's biographer, Ben Rogers, deposited 7 boxes of research material accumulated through the writing process at University College London in 2007.[42] The material was donated in collaboration with Ayer's family.[42]
Selected publications
- 1936, ISBN 978-0-14-118604-7
- 1936, "Causation and free will",[43] The Aryan Path.
- 1940, OCLC 2028651
- 1954, OCLC 186636305
- 1957, S. Korner, ed., Observation and Interpretation in the Philosophy of Physics, New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications.
- 1956, OCLC 557578816
- 1957, F. C. Copleston) in: Edwards, Paul, Pap, Arthur (eds.), A Modern Introduction to Philosophy; readings from classical and contemporary sources[44]
- 1963, OCLC 3573935
- 1967, "Has Austin Refuted the Sense-Datum Theory?"[40] Synthese vol. XVIII, pp. 117–140. (Reprinted in Ayer 1969).
- 1968, OCLC 641463982
- 1969, ISBN 978-0-333-10517-7
- 1971, OCLC 464766212
- 1972, ISBN 978-0-333-12756-8
- 1972, OCLC 186128708
- 1973, ISBN 978-0-297-76634-6
- 1977,
- 1979, "Replies", in G. F. Macdonald, ed., Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A. J. Ayer, With His Replies, London: Macmillan; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.[46]
- 1980, Hume, Oxford: Oxford University Press
- 1982, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, London: Weidenfeld.
- 1984, Freedom and Morality and Other Essays, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- 1984, More of My Life, London: Collins.
- 1986, Ludwig Wittgenstein, London: Penguin.
- 1986, Voltaire, New York: Random House.
- 1988, Thomas Paine, London: Secker & Warburg.
- 1990, The Meaning of Life and Other Essays, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.[47]
- 1991, "A Defense of Empiricism" in: Griffiths, A. Phillips (ed.), A. J. Ayer: Memorial Essays (Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements). Cambridge University Press.[48]
- 1992, "Intellectual Autobiography" and Replies in: Lewis Edwin Hahn (ed.), The Philosophy of A.J. Ayer (The Library of Living Philosophers Volume XXI), Open Court Publishing Co.[49]
*For more complete publication details see "The Philosophical Works of A. J. Ayer" (1979) and "Bibliography of the writings of A.J. Ayer" (1992).
See also
References
Footnotes
- ^ a b c "Alfred Jules Ayer". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2005. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
- ^ "Ayer". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ISBN 0-415-06043-5.
- ^ "Alfred Jules Ayer Facts". Your Dictionary. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
- ISBN 978-0-415-24445-9.
- OL 6782148M.
- ^ Anthony Quinton, Alfred Jules Ayer. Proceedings of the British Academy, 94 (1996), pp. 255–282.
- ^ a b Pace, Eric (29 June 1989). "A. J. Ayer Dead in Britain at 78; Philosopher of Logical Positivism". The New York Times.
- OL 6782148M.
- ^ ISBN 9780099536819.
- ^ Norton-Taylor, Richard (21 September 2010). "Graham Greene, Arthur Ransome and Somerset Maugham all spied for Britain, admits MI6". The Guardian. London.
- ^ "No. 34957". The London Gazette (Supplement). 27 September 1940. p. 5776.
- ^ Radio Times article by Tim Heald, 20–26 August 1977
- ISBN 978-0-09-174246-1.
- ^ a b c d e Wollheim 2011
- ^ "The worst crime was to be a bore | the Spectator". 2 July 2011.
- ^ ISBN 9780029064818.
- ^ ISBN 9780029064818.
- ^ Rogers (1999), p. 344.
- ^ Ayer, A. J. (28 August 1988). "What I Saw When I Was Dead". The Sunday Telegraph. Reprinted as "The Undiscovered Country" in The Meaning Of Life (1990) and The Philosophy of A. J. Ayer (1992)
- ^ Lougrhan, Gerry (18 March 2001), Can There Be Life After Life? Ask the Atheist!
- ^ Ayer, A. J. (15 October 1988). "POSTSCRIPT TO A POSTMORTEM". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Reprinted in The Meaning Of Life (1990) and The Philosophy of A. J. Ayer (1992)
- ^ "City of Westminster green plaques". Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ "Representation and Expression," Analysis, Vol.1, No.3; "Metaphysics and Emotive Language," Analysis Vol. II, nos. 1 and 2,
- ^ Ayer A. J. Language, Truth and Logic 1946/1952, New York/Dover
- ISBN 978-0-87975-766-3.
- ^ "I do not believe in God. It seems to me that theists of all kinds have very largely failed to make their concept of a deity intelligible; and to the extent that they have made it intelligible, they have given us no reason to think that anything answers to it." Ayer, A.J. (1966). "What I Believe," Humanist, Vol.81 (8) August, p. 226.
- South Place Ethical Society." (Ayer 1989, p. 12)
- ^ a b Ayer, A. J. (1952). "Ch. VI. Critique of Ethics and Theology". Language, truth, and logic. pp. 103, 106.
- ^ Buckman, David (13 November 1998). "Where are the Hirsts of the 1930s now?". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 25 January 2012.
- ISBN 978-0-19-929105-2.
- ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
- ^ "Humanist Manifesto II". American Humanist Association. Archived from the original on 20 October 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
- ^ Schlick, Moritz (1935). "Unanswerable Questions". The Philosopher. XIII. The Philosophical Society of England. Retrieved 4 November 2011.
- ^ Language, Truth and Logic, Penguin, 2001, p. ix
- ^ Language, Truth and Logic, Penguin, 2001, p. 140
- JSTOR 2218597.
- ISBN 978-0-394-71655-8.
- ISBN 978-0-03-013116-5.
- ^ a b listed (and reprinted) as "Has Austin Refuted Sense-data?" in Fann. K.T. (ed.), Symposium on J.L. Austin (1969)
- ^ "No. 44999". The London Gazette (Supplement). 30 December 1969. p. 1.
- ^ a b UCL Special Collections. "Ayer (Rogers) Papers". UCL Archives Catalogue. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
- ^ listed in some bibliographies as (The) "Freedom of the Will" (1936)
- ^ reprinted in Ayer, A. J., (1990) The Meaning of Life and Other Essays, the same being reviewed (with attention given to the Ayer/Copleston debate) in: McGinn, Colin (30 August 1990). "Old Scores". London Review of Books. 12 (16).
- .
- ^ McDonald (1979) also includes a detailed listing of Ayer's philosophical works
- ^ Reviewed in: McGinn, Colin (30 August 1990). "Old Scores". London Review of Books. 12 (16).
- ^ Phillips (1991) also includes a 1989 interview with Ayer conducted by Ted Hondereich
- ^ Hahn (1992) also includes a comprehensive 27-page bibliography of Ayer's writings compiled by Guida Crowley.
Works cited
- Ayer, A.J. (1989). "That undiscovered country", New Humanist, Vol. 104 (1), May, pp. 10–13.
- Rogers, Ben (1999). A.J. Ayer: A Life. New York: Grove Press. , The New York Times, 24 December 2000.)
- Wollheim, Richard (January 2011) [2004]. "Ayer, Sir Alfred Jules [Freddie]". doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/39796. (Subscription or UK public library membershiprequired.)
Further reading
- Jim Holt, "Positive Thinking" (review of Karl Sigmund, Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science, Basic Books, 449 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 74–76.
- Ted Honderich, Ayer's Philosophy and its Greatness.
- Anthony Quinton, Alfred Jules Ayer. Proceedings of the British Academy, 94 (1996), pp. 255–282.
- Graham Macdonald, Alfred Jules Ayer, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 7 May 2005.
- Foster, John (1985), Ayer, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7102-0602-X, 071020602X
External links
- "Logical Positivism" (video) Men of Ideas interview with Bryan Magee (1978)
- "Frege, Russell, and Modern Logic" (video) The Great Philosophers interview with Bryan Magee (1987)
- Ayer's Elizabeth Rathbone Lecture on Philosophy & Politics
- Ayer entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- A.J. Ayer: Out of time by Alex Callinicos
- Works by A. J. Ayer at Open Library
- Works by or about A. J. Ayer at the Internet Archive
- Appearance on Desert Island Discs - 3 August 1984
- A. J. Ayer at IMDb
- Ayer (Rogers) Papers at University College London