AHS Centaur
AHS Centaur following her conversion to a hospital ship. The Red Cross designation "47" can be seen on the bow.
| |
History | |
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United Kingdom | |
Name | Centaur |
Namesake | The Greek mythological creature |
Owner | Ocean Steamship Company |
Operator | Alfred Holt & Co Ltd (Blue Funnel Line) |
Ordered | 1923 |
Builder | Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, Greenock |
Laid down | 16 November 1923 |
Launched | 5 June 1924 |
Completed | 29 August 1924 |
Homeport |
|
Identification | United Kingdom Official Number 147275 |
Fate | Transferred to Australia |
General characteristics as merchant vessel | |
Tonnage | 3,222 GRT |
Length | 96 m (315 ft) |
Beam | 14.7 m (48 ft) |
Draught | 6.1 m (20 ft) |
Propulsion | double screw; 4-stroke, 6-cylinder Burmeister and Wain diesel oil engine providing 1,400 bhp (1,000 kW) |
Speed | 20.5 knots (38.0 km/h; 23.6 mph) |
Capacity |
|
Crew | 39 officers, 29 ratings |
Armament |
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Australia | |
Name | Centaur |
Operator | 2nd Australian Imperial Force |
Acquired | 4 January 1943 |
Reclassified | Hospital ship |
Homeport | Sydney, New South Wales |
Identification | Red Cross Ship 47 |
Fate | Torpedoed on 14 May 1943 by Japanese submarine I-177 |
General characteristics as hospital ship | |
Capacity | 252 bed-patients |
Crew | 75 crew, 65 permanent Army medical staff |
Armament | All weapons removed, degaussing equipment remained |
Australian Hospital Ship (AHS) Centaur[a] was a hospital ship which was attacked and sunk by a Japanese submarine off the coast of Queensland, Australia, on 14 May 1943. Of the 332 medical personnel and civilian crew aboard, 268 died, including 63 of the 65 army personnel.
The Scottish-built vessel was launched in 1924 as a
In January 1943, Centaur was handed over to the Australian military for conversion to a hospital ship, as her small size made her suitable for operating in
The reason for the attack is unknown; there are theories that Centaur was in breach of the international conventions that should have protected her, that I-177's commander was unaware that Centaur was a hospital ship, or that the submarine commander, Hajime Nakagawa, knowingly attacked a protected vessel. The wreck of Centaur was found on 20 December 2009; a claimed discovery in 1995 has been proven to be a different shipwreck.
Design and construction
Original design
In early 1923, the Ocean Steamship Company (a subsidiary of Alfred Holt's Blue Funnel Line) decided that a new vessel would be required to replace the ageing Charon on the Western Australia to Singapore trade route.[5] The vessel had to be capable of simultaneously transporting passengers, cargo, and livestock.[5] She also had to be capable of resting on mud flats out of the water as the tidal variance in ports at the northern end of Western Australia was as great as 8 metres (26 ft).[6]
Scotts Shipbuilding and Engineering Company in Greenock was chosen to build Centaur.[5] The keel was laid on 16 November 1923, and the ship was ready for collection by 29 August 1924.[5] Constructed at a cost of £146,750 sterling, Centaur was designed to carry 72 passengers and 450 cattle.[5][7] Cargo was carried in four holds; the two decks within the hull were primarily for livestock, and could also be used as extra cargo space.[5][8] The hull of the ship was a 'turret deck' design; decks below the waterline were wider than those above water, and a flat, reinforced hull allowed the ship to rest on the bottom.[5] Centaur was among the first civilian vessels to be equipped with a diesel engine.[9] One of the most visible characteristics was the 35-foot (11 m) smokestack, the extreme size was more a concession to tradition than of practical advantage on a diesel-powered vessel.[5] Her engine was 6-cylinder 4-stroke, single cycle single action diesel engine. It had cylinders of 2415⁄16 inches (64 cm) diameter by 513⁄16 inches (135 cm) stroke. The engine was built by Burmeister & Wain, Copenhagen, Denmark.[10] One of her holds was fitted with refrigeration equipment. The refrigerant was brine and the insulation was cork. The refrigerated hold had a capacity of 3,000 cubic feet (85 m3).[11]
In December 1939, Centaur underwent a minor refit in Hong Kong, with a supercharger and a new propeller fitted to the engine.[12] The supercharger broke down in April 1942, and could not be repaired because of equipment shortages and restricted dockyard access caused by World War II.[13]
Hospital ship refit
At the beginning of 1943, Centaur was placed at the disposal of the Australian Department of Defence for conversion to a hospital ship.[14] The conversion was performed by United Ship Services in Melbourne, Australia, and was initially estimated to cost AU£20,000.[15]
The cost increased to almost AU£55,000, for a variety of reasons.
When AHS Centaur was relaunched on 12 March 1943, she was equipped with an operating theatre, dispensary, two wards (located on the former cattle decks), and a dental surgery, along with quarters for seventy five crew and sixty five permanent Army medical staff.[2][16] To maintain the ship's mean draught of 6.1 metres (20 ft), 900 tons of ironstone were distributed through the cargo holds as ballast.[15] AHS Centaur was capable of voyages of 18 days before resupply and could carry just over 250 bedridden patients.[17]
Operational history
1924 to 1938
Centaur was allocated the United Kingdom Official Number 147275 and the
Following the change in Code Letters in 1934, Centaur was allocated the Code Letters GMQP.[10] A highlight of Centaur's pre-war career was the rescue of the 385 ton Japanese whale-chaser Kyo Maru II in November 1938.[22] Kyo Maru II had developed boiler problems while returning from the Antarctic and was drifting towards the Houtman Abrolhos Archipelago, where she was in danger of being wrecked by the reefs in the area.[19] Centaur responded to the distress signal and towed Kyo Maru II to Geraldton.[19]
1939 to 1942
As a vessel of the
On 26 November 1941, a damaged lifeboat carrying 62 Kriegsmarine (German navy) sailors and officers was spotted by an aircraft looking for the missing Australian cruiser HMAS Sydney; the aircraft directed Centaur to the lifeboat.[26] Upon encountering the lifeboat, food was lowered to its occupants, and one person was allowed on board to explain the situation.[27] Initially posing as a Norwegian merchant navy officer, the man quickly revealed that he was the first officer of the German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran and that the lifeboat contained German survivors from Kormoran's battle with HMAS Sydney seven days earlier, including Captain Theodor Detmers.[27]
Unwilling to leave the shipwrecked men at sea, but afraid of having his ship captured by the Germans, Centaur's
Following the Japanese
1943
With the commencement of hostilities between Japan and the British Empire, it became clear that the three hospital ships currently serving Australia—
Centaur entered operation as a hospital ship on 12 March 1943.[35] The early stages of Centaur's first voyage as a hospital ship were test and transport runs; the initial run from Melbourne to Sydney resulted in the Master, Chief Engineer, and Chief Medical Officer composing a long list of defects requiring attention.[36] Following repairs, she conducted a test run, transporting wounded servicemen from Townsville to Brisbane to ensure that she was capable of fulfilling the role of a medical vessel.[35] Centaur was then tasked with delivering medical personnel to Port Moresby, New Guinea, and returning to Brisbane with Australian and American wounded along with a few wounded Japanese prisoners of war.[37]
Arriving in Sydney on 8 May 1943, Centaur was re-provisioned at
Sinking
At approximately 4:10 am on 14 May 1943, while on her second run from Sydney to Port Moresby, Centaur was torpedoed by an unsighted submarine.[45] The torpedo struck the portside oil fuel tank approximately 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) below the waterline, creating a hole 8 to 10 metres (26 to 33 ft) across, igniting the fuel, and setting the ship on fire from the bridge aft.[39][46] Many of those on board were immediately killed by concussion or perished in the inferno.[47] Centaur quickly took on water through the impact site, rolled to port, then sank bow-first, submerging completely in less than three minutes.[39][48] The rapid sinking prevented the deployment of lifeboats, although two broke off from Centaur as she sank, along with several damaged liferafts.[49][50]
According to the position extrapolated by Second Officer Gordon Rippon from the 4:00 am dead reckoning position, Centaur was attacked approximately 24 nautical miles (44 km; 28 mi) east-northeast of Point Lookout, North Stradbroke Island, Queensland.[51][52] Doubts were initially cast on the accuracy of both the calculated point of sinking and the dead reckoning position, but the 2009 discovery of the wreck found both to be correct, Centaur located within 1 nautical mile (1.9 km; 1.2 mi) of Rippon's coordinates.[53][54]
Survivors
Survivor breakdown[55] | ||
---|---|---|
Group | Embarked | Survived |
Crew[b] | 75 | 30 |
Army officers | 8 | 0 |
Army nurses | 12 | 1 |
2/12th Field Ambulance | 192 | 32 |
Other Army | 45 | 1 |
Total | 332 | 64 |
Of the 332 people on board, 64 were rescued.[56] Most of the crew and passengers were asleep at the time of attack and had little chance to escape.[49] It was estimated that up to 200 people may have been alive at the time Centaur submerged.[57] Several who made it off the ship later died from shrapnel wounds or burns; others were unable to find support and drowned.[57][58]
The survivors spent 36 hours in the water, using barrels, wreckage, and the two damaged lifeboats for flotation.[49] During this time, they drifted approximately 19.6 nautical miles (36.3 km; 22.6 mi) north east of Centaur's calculated point of sinking and spread out over an area of 2 nautical miles (3.7 km; 2.3 mi).[30][59] The survivors saw at least four ships and several aircraft, but could not attract their attention.[43]
At the time of rescue, the survivors were in two large and three small groups, with several more floating alone.
Rescue
On the morning of 15 May 1943, the American destroyer USS Mugford departed Brisbane to escort the 11,063 ton New Zealand freighter Sussex on the first stage of the latter's trans-Tasman voyage.[64] At 2:00 pm, a lookout aboard Mugford reported an object on the horizon.[65] Around the same time, a Royal Australian Air Force Avro Anson of No. 71 Squadron, flying ahead on anti-submarine watch, dived towards the object.[65] The aircraft returned to the two ships and signalled that there were shipwreck survivors in the water requiring rescue.[65] Mugford's commanding officer ordered Sussex to continue alone as Mugford collected the survivors.[65][66] Marksmen were positioned around the ship to shoot sharks, and sailors stood ready to dive in and assist the wounded.[67] Mugford's medics inspected each person as they came aboard and provided necessary medical care.[67] The American crew learned from the first group of survivors that they were from the hospital ship Centaur.[66]
At 2:14 pm, Mugford made contact with the Naval Officer-in-Charge in Brisbane, and announced that the ship was recovering survivors from Centaur at 27°03′S 154°12′E / 27.050°S 154.200°E, the first that anyone in Australia had knowledge of the attack on the hospital ship.[56][68] The rescue of the 64 survivors took an hour and twenty minutes, although Mugford remained in the area until dark, searching an area of approximately 7 by 14 nautical miles (13 by 26 km; 8 by 16 mi) for more survivors.[65][69] After darkness fell, Mugford returned to Brisbane, arriving shortly before midnight.[56] Further searches of the waters off North Stradbroke Island were made by USS Helm during the night of 15 May until 6:00 pm on 16 May, and by HMAS Lithgow and four motor torpedo boats from 16 to 21 May, neither search finding more survivors.[30][70]
Identifying attacker
At the time of the attack, none aboard Centaur witnessed what had attacked the ship. Due to the ship's position, the distance from shore, and the depth, it was concluded that she was torpedoed by one of the Japanese submarines known to be operating off the Australian east coast.
At the time of the attack, three KD7 Kaidai were operating off Australia's east coast: I-177 under the command of Hajime Nakagawa, I-178 under Hidejiro Utsuki, and I-180 under Toshio Kusaka.[49][72] None of these submarines survived the war; I-177 was sunk by USS Samuel S. Miles on 3 October 1944,[73] I-178 by USS Patterson on 25 August 1943,[74] and I-180 by USS Gilmore on 26 April 1944.[75] Kusaka and Nakagawa were transferred to other submarines before the loss of I-180 and I-177 respectively, but Utsuki and I-178 were sunk while returning from the patrol off the coast of Australia.[76]
In December 1943, following official protests, the Japanese government issued a statement formally denying responsibility for the sinking of Centaur.[77] Records provided by the Japanese following the war also did not acknowledge responsibility.[74] Although Centaur's sinking was a war crime, no one was tried for sinking the hospital ship.[78] Investigations into the attack were conducted between 1944 and 1948, and included the interrogation of the commanders of the submarines operating in Australian waters at the time, their superiors, plus junior officers and crewmen from the submarines who had survived the war.[78] Several of the investigators suspected that Nakagawa and I-177 were most likely responsible, but they were unable to establish this beyond reasonable doubt, and the Centaur case file was closed on 14 December 1948 without any charges laid.[78]
Historians were divided on which submarine was responsible.[79] In Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945, published in 1968 as part of the series detailing the Australian official history of World War II, George Hermon Gill concluded that either I-178 or I-180 was responsible; the former was more likely as she had served in Australian waters the longest of any Japanese submarine at the time, but had claimed no kills in the three-month period surrounding Centaur's sinking.[74][79] In 1972, German military historian Jürgen Rohwer claimed in Chronology of the war at sea that I-177 torpedoed Centaur, based on a Japanese report stating that I-177 had attacked a ship on 14 May 1943 in the area the hospital ship had sunk.[79][80] Japanese Rear Admiral Kaneyoshi Sakamoto, who had shown Rohwer the report, stated that Nakagawa and I-177 were responsible for the attack on Centaur in his 1979 book History of Submarine Warfare.[79]
As an official history of the Japanese Navy, Sakamoto's work was considered to be official admission of the attacking submarine's identity.[79] Subsequently, most sources assumed as fact Nakagawa's and I-177's role in the loss of Centaur.[81] Nakagawa, who died in 1991, refused to speak about the attack on Centaur following the war crimes investigation at the end of World War II or even to defend himself or deny the claims made by Rohwer and Sakamoto.[71][82]
Reaction
Public reaction
The media were notified of Centaur's sinking on 17 May 1943, but were ordered not to release the news until it had been announced in the South West Pacific Area's General Headquarters dispatch at midday on 18 May, and in Parliament by Prime Minister John Curtin that afternoon.[83] News of the attack made front pages throughout the world, including The Times of London, The New York Times, and the Montreal Gazette.[84] In some newspapers, the news took precedence over the 'Dambuster' raids performed in Europe by No. 617 Squadron RAF.[85]
The initial public reaction to the attack on Centaur was one of outrage, significantly different from that displayed following the loss of Australian warships or merchant vessels.
People also expressed their sympathy towards the crew, and there were several efforts to fund a new hospital ship.[89] The councillors of Caulfield, Victoria, organised a fund to replace the lost medical equipment, opening with a donation of AU£2,000.[89] Those who worked on Centaur's conversion contributed money towards a replacement, and employees of Ansett Airways pledged to donate an hour's pay towards the fitting out of such a replacement.[89]
With some people unable to believe that the Japanese would be so ruthless, rumours began to spread almost immediately after news of the attack was made public.[91] The most common rumour was that Centaur had been carrying munitions or commandos at the time of her sinking, the Japanese being made aware of this before her departure.[91] This stemmed from an incident involving the ambulance drivers' weapons during loading in Sydney.[43]
Military reaction
The attack was universally condemned by Australian servicemen, who commonly believed that the attack on Centaur had been carried out deliberately and in full knowledge of her status.
Six days after the attack on Centaur, a request was made by the Australian Department of Defence that the identification markings and lights be removed from
When the consideration was made that the ambulance drivers' weapons incident just before Centaur's voyage may have been partially responsible for the attack, it led to the tightening of rules regarding who was allowed to travel on a hospital ship.
Official protests
After consultation with the Australian armed forces, General MacArthur, the Admiralty, and the Australian Government, an official protest was sent.[98] This was received by the Japanese Government on 29 May 1943.[98] At around the same time, the International Committee of the Red Cross sent a protest on behalf of the major Allied Red Cross organisations to the Japanese Red Cross.[98]
On 26 December 1943, a response to the Australian protest arrived.[95] It stated that the Japanese Government had no information justifying the allegation made, and therefore took no responsibility for what happened.[95] The reply counter-protested that nine Japanese hospital ships had been attacked by the Allies, although these claims were directed against the United States, not Australia.[43][95] Although several later exchanges were made, the lack of progress saw the British Government inform the Australian Prime Minister on 14 November 1944 that no further communications would be made on the loss of Centaur.[99]
Theories for attack
Torpedo attacks in Australian waters were common at this time, with 27 Japanese submarines operating in Australian waters between June 1942 and December 1944.[100] These submarines attacked almost 50 merchant vessels, 20 ships confirmed to be sunk as result of a Japanese attack, plus 9 more unconfirmed.[100] This was part of a concentrated effort to disrupt supply convoys from Australia to New Guinea.[101]
Several actions on Centaur's part may have contributed to her demise. Centaur was under orders to sail well out to sea until reaching the Great Barrier Reef; her course keeping her between 50 and 150 nautical miles (90 and 280 km; 60 and 170 mi) from shore.[102] Centaur's Master, believing he had been given a route intended for a merchant vessel, set a course closer to land, but on the seaward side of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in depth.[103] Also, Centaur was sailing completely illuminated, with the exception of the two bow floodlights, which had been switched off as they interfered with visibility from the bridge.[39]
There are three main theories as to why Centaur was attacked:
Legitimate target
This theory stems from the rumours spreading after Centaur's sinking. If Centaur had been in breach of the
Similar but later rumours included that during her first voyage, Centaur had transported soldiers to New Guinea, or Japanese
Mistaken target
This theory states that Nakagawa was unaware that the vessel he was attacking was a hospital ship, and that the sinking was an unfortunate accident.[109] This view was supported by several Japanese officers, both before and after the revelation that Nakagawa was responsible.[109] Amongst them was Lieutenant Commander Zenji Orita, who took command of I-177 after Nakagawa.[109] Orita did not hear anything from the crew about having sunk a hospital ship, not even rumours, and believed that if I-177 had knowingly attacked Centaur, he would have learned this from the crew's gossip.[109]
When compared to the other contemporary
Intentional target
This theory states that Nakagawa was fully aware that his target was a hospital ship and decided to sink her regardless, either on his own initiative or on a poor interpretation of his orders.[111] Researchers speculate that as Nakagawa was approaching the end of his tour in Australian waters, and had only sunk a single enemy vessel, the 8,742 ton freighter Limerick, he did not want to return with the disgrace of a single kill.[39] Other claims include that Nakagawa may have been acting in vengeance for casualties inflicted by the Allies during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea, or may have expected praise for the sinking of an enemy naval vessel.[112]
In February 1944, while in command of
Shipwreck
Following World War II, several searches of the waters around North Stradbroke and Moreton Islands failed to reveal Centaur's location. It was believed that she had sunk off the edge of the continental shelf, to a depth at which the Royal Australian Navy did not have the capability to search for a vessel of Centaur's size.[1] Some parties also believed that Rippon's calculated point of sinking was inaccurate, either intentionally or through error.[53][54]
Several points were incorrectly identified as the location where Centaur sank. The first was in the War Diary Situation Report entry for the hospital ship's sinking, which gives 27°17′S 154°05′E / 27.283°S 154.083°E, 7 nautical miles (13 km; 8.1 mi) east of Rippon's position.[114] According to Milligan and Foley, this likely occurred because an estimated 50-nautical-mile (93 km; 58 mi) distance from Brisbane, included as a frame of reference, was interpreted literally.[114] In 1974, two divers claimed to have found the ship approximately 40 nautical miles (74 km; 46 mi) east of Brisbane, in 60 metres (200 ft) of water, but did not disclose its exact location.[115] Attempts to relocate the site between 1974 and 1992 were unsuccessful, an associate of the divers claiming that the Navy destroyed the wreck shortly after its discovery.[116]
Dennis's claim
In 1995, it was announced that the shipwreck of Centaur had been located in waters 9 nautical miles (17 km; 10 mi) from the lighthouse on Moreton Island, a significant distance from her believed last position.
Over the next eight years, there was growing doubt about the position of Dennis' wreck, due to the distance from both Second Officer Rippon's calculation of the point of sinking and where USS Mugford found the survivors.
On the 60th anniversary of the sinking, 60 Minutes ran a story demonstrating that the wreck was not Centaur.[117] It was revealed that nobody at the Queensland Maritime Museum had yet seen Dennis' footage, and when it was shown to Museum president Rod McLeod and maritime historian John Foley, they stated that the shipwreck could not be Centaur due to physical inconsistencies, such as an incorrect rudder.[117] Following this story, and others published around the same time in newspapers, the Navy sent three ships to inspect the site over a two-month period; HMA Ships Hawkesbury, Melville, and Yarra, before concluding that the shipwreck was incorrectly identified as Centaur.[1] An amendment was made to the gazettal, and the Hydrographic Office began to remove the mark from charts.[1]
Discovery
In April 2008, following the successful
Six sonar targets with similar dimensions to Centaur were located between 15 and 18 December: as none of the contacts corresponded completely to the hospital ship, the search team opted to take advantage of favourable weather conditions and continue investigating the area before returning to each site and making a detailed inspection with a higher-resolution sonar.[125][126] On the afternoon of 18 December, the sonar towfish separated from the cable, and was lost in 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) of water, forcing the use of the high-resolution sonar to complete the area search.[127] After inspecting the potential targets, Mearns and the search team announced on 20 December that they had found Centaur that morning.[48][54][126]
The wreck was found at 27°16.98′S 153°59.22′E / 27.28300°S 153.98700°E (30 nautical miles (56 km; 35 mi) east of Moreton Island, and less than 1 nautical mile (1.9 km; 1.2 mi) from Rippon's coordinates), resting 2,059 metres (6,755 ft) below sea level in a steep-walled gully, 150 metres (490 ft) wide and 90 metres (300 ft) deep.
Memorials
In 1948, Queensland nurses established the "Centaur Memorial Fund for Nurses" which used the money raised to purchase an establishment and name it "Centaur House"; a facility supporting nurses by holding convivial meetings and providing inexpensive accommodation for out-of-town nurses.[130] The original Centaur House was sold in 1971, a new building being purchased and renamed.[131] The second Centaur House was sold in 1979 and although the fund still exists, it no longer owns a physical facility.[131] On 15 September 1968, a cairn was unveiled at Caloundra, Queensland, erected by the local Rotary International Club.[132] In 1990, a stained glass memorial window depicting Centaur, along with a plaque listing the names of those lost in the attack, was installed at Concord Repatriation General Hospital, at a cost of A$16,000.[133] A display about Centaur was placed at the Australian War Memorial.[134] The centrepiece of the display was a scale model of Centaur presented to the Memorial by Blue Funnel Line, and the display included items that were donated by the survivors, such as a lifejacket, a signal flare, and a medical kit.[134] It was removed in 1992 to make way for a display related to the Vietnam War.[134]
A memorial to Centaur was unveiled at Point Danger, Coolangatta, Queensland on 14 May 1993, the 50th anniversary of the sinking.[135] It consists of a monumental stone topped with a cairn, surrounded by a tiled moat with memorial plaques explaining the commemoration. The memorial is surrounded by a park with a boardwalk, overlooking the sea, with plaques for other Merchant Navy and Royal Australian Navy vessels lost during World War II. The unveiling of the memorial was performed by Minister for Veterans' Affairs, Senator John Faulkner.[135]
A memorial plaque was laid on the foredeck of Centaur on 12 January 2010, during the fourth and final ROV dive on the hospital ship.
See also
Footnotes
Citations
- ^ a b c d e Department of Defence, Navy findings of search for ex Army Hospital Ship (AHS) Centaur
- ^ a b c Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 51
- ^ a b Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, pp. 186–87
- ^ Sinnamon, Myles (13 May 2013). "Sinking of the AHS Centaur". State Library Of Queensland. Retrieved 18 September 2023.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 9
- ^ a b Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 281
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 5–6
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 22
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 2
- ^ a b Lloyd's Register. "Lloyd's Register, Navires a Vapeur et a Moteurs" (PDF). Plimsoll Ship Data. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
- ^ Lloyd's Register. "List of Vessels Fitted With Refrigerating Appliances – continued. Part II. – List of vessels having a capacity of less than 80,000 cubic feet (if not holding Lloyd's R.M.C.)" (PDF). Plimsoll Ship Data. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 14
- ^ a b Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 25
- ^ a b c d Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 19
- ^ a b c d e f g Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 21
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, pp. 21–22
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 40
- ^ Lloyd's Register. "Lloyd's Register, Navires a Vapeur et a Moteurs" (PDF). Plimsoll Ship Data. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 14 May 2014.
- ^ a b c d Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 13
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 12
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, pp. 13, 15
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 13
- ^ a b Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 15
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 18
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 21, 53
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 18
- ^ a b c Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 19
- ^ a b c Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 16
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 26
- ^ a b c d e Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945, p. 258
- ^ Laws of War : Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Convention (Hague X); October 18, 1907
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 43–44
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 44
- ^ Goodman, Our War Nurses, p. 194
- ^ a b Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 23
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 52
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 24
- ^ a b c Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 25
- ^ a b c d e Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 278
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 27
- ^ Adam-Smith, Australian Women at War, p. 176
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 198
- ^ a b c d e f g Goodman, Our War Nurses, p. 195
- ^ a b c Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 76–77
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 28
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 104
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 105
- ^ a b c Australian Associated Press, Hospital ship Centaur discovered off Queensland coast
- ^ a b c d e Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945, p. 259
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 128
- ^ Stevens, A Critical Vulnerability, p. 358
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 38
- ^ a b Milligan & Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 238–39
- ^ a b c d e Fraser, Discovery proves maligned navigator got it right
- ^ Numerical comparison of crew and survivor statistics. Smith, Three Minutes of Time, pp. 27, 34
- ^ a b c Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 34
- ^ a b Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 122
- ^ Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 279
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 26
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, pp. 34, 54–57
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 156
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 250
- ^ "No. 36669". The London Gazette (Supplement). 22 August 1944. p. 3941.
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 144–5
- ^ a b c d e Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945, p. 257
- ^ a b Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 33
- ^ a b Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 149
- ^ Milligan & Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 150
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 153
- ^ Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 35
- ^ a b c Smith, Three Minutes of Time, p. 29
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 201
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 247
- ^ a b c Gill, Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945, p. 260
- ^ Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, vol 3, p. 100
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 201–02
- ^ Frame,. No Pleasure Cruise, p. 188
- ^ a b c Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 196–214
- ^ a b c d e Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 214–15
- ^ Rohwer and Hümmelchen, Chronology of the war at sea, 1939–1945, p. 201
- ^ Dennis et al., The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History, p. 124
- ^ Jenkins, Battle Surface, pp. 284–85
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 169–71
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 175
- ^ Wilson, Sunken Hearts, p. 23
- ^ Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, p. 187
- ^ Adam-Smith, Australian Women at War, p. 174
- ^ McKernan, All In:, pp. 134–35
- ^ a b c d Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 179
- ^ a b Department of Veterans' Affairs, Sinking of the Centaur – Commemoration
- ^ a b Frame, No Pleasure Cruise, p. 177
- ^ a b Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 282
- ^ Kenney, General Kenney Reports, pp. 245–46
- ^ a b Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 189–92
- ^ a b c d Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 192
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 191
- ^ a b Goodman, Our War Nurses, p. 197
- ^ a b c Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 187
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 194
- ^ a b Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 286
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 68
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 87
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 88
- ^ a b Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 232
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 75, 85
- ^ a b Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 233
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 227
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 65
- ^ a b c d Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 280
- ^ a b c Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 283
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 235
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 236
- ^ a b c Jenkins, Battle Surface, p. 284
- ^ a b Milligan & Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 239
- ^ Milligan & Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 240
- ^ Milligan & Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 240–1
- ^ a b c d e f g A Grave Mistake [60 Minutes segment]
- ^ a b Wilson, Sunken Hearts, p. 24
- ^ a b c Jackson, Wreck diving in Southern Queensland, pp. 157–81
- ^ Dart, Shipwreck hunter offers to find Centaur remains
- ^ Crutcher, Let Aussie shipwreck hunters find the Centaur
- ^ Atkinson, Companies show interest in Centaur search
- ^ Berry, Search for sunken hospital ship to begin soon
- ^ a b Tedmanson, Search begins for wreckage of hospital ship Centaur destroyed in war
- ^ a b Australian Associated Press, Centaur searchers find 'target' off Qld
- ^ a b c Heger, Shipwreck hunter David Mearns confirms ship is the Centaur
- ^ Australian Associated Press, Centaur searchers lose vital equipment
- ^ Barbeler & Long, First photos of hospital ship Centaur
- ^ a b c d Barbeler & Australian Associated Press, Memorial plaque laid on the Centaur
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 251
- ^ a b Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 252
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, pp. 256–57
- ^ Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 257
- ^ a b c Milligan and Foley, Australian Hospital Ship Centaur, p. 255
- ^ a b Larsen, Centaur memorial unveiled, p. 2
- ^ Barbeler, Centaur dead remembered
- ^ a b Hurst, Hope floats
References
- Books
- OCLC 12750077.
- Dennis, Peter; Grey, Jeffrey; Morris, Ewan; Prior, Robin (2008). The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, VIC: Oxford University Press. OCLC 271822831.
- OCLC 55980812.
- "Gilmore". from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- Gill, George Hermon (1968). "The Supply Lines Battle". Royal Australian Navy, 1942–1945. OCLC 65475.
- Goodman, Rupert (1988). Our War Nurses: the history of the Royal Australian Army Nursing Corps 1902–1988. Bowen Hills, NSW: Boolarong Publications. OCLC 29016571.
- Jackson, Trevor (2007). Wreck diving in Southern Queensland. Brisbane, QLD: Jackson, T. (self-published).
- Jenkins, David (1992). Battle Surface! Japan's Submarine War Against Australia 1942–44. Milsons Point, NSW: Random House Australia. OCLC 0091826381.
- OCLC 16466573.
- McKernan, Michael (1983). All In! Australia During the Second World War. Melbourne, VIC: Thomas Nelson Australia. OCLC 10410056.
- Milligan, Christopher; Foley, John (2003). Australian Hospital Ship Centaur – the myth of immunity. Hendra, QLD: Nairana Publications. OCLC 31291428.
- Rohwer, Jürgen; Hümmelchen, Gerhard (1992) [1972]. Chronology of the war at sea, 1939–1945: the naval history of World War Two. Masters, Derek (translator) (2nd, revised ed.). London: Greenhill Books. OCLC 26491361.
- Smith, Alan (May 1992) [1991]. Three Minutes of Time – the torpedoing of the Australian Hospital Ship Centaur (2nd ed.). Miami, QLD: Lower Tweed River Historical Society. OCLC 27554937.
- Stevens, David (2005). "Appendix V" (PDF). A Critical Vulnerability: the impact of the submarine threat on Australia's maritime defence 1915–1954. Papers in Australian Maritime Affairs. Vol. 15. Canberra: Sea Power Centre Australia. OCLC 62548623. Archived from the original(PDF) on 30 October 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- Journal and news articles
- Atkinson, Bruce (18 February 2009). "Companies show interest in Centaur search". ABC News Brisbane. Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- Australian Associated Press (20 December 2009). "Hospital ship Centaur discovered off Queensland coast". News.com.au. Archived from the original on 22 December 2009. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- Australian Associated Press (15 December 2009). "Centaur searchers find 'target' off Qld". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 15 December 2009.
- Australian Associated Press (18 December 2009). "Centaur searchers lose vital equipment". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 19 December 2009. Retrieved 18 December 2009.
- Barbeler, David; Long, Bruce (10 January 2010). "First photos of hospital ship Centaur". The Sunday Mail. Archived from the original on 12 January 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
- Barbeler, David (12 January 2010). "Memorial plaque laid on the Centaur". The Sydney Morning Herald. Australian Associated Press. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
- Barbeler, David (3 March 2010). "Centaur dead remembered". Sunshine Coast Daily. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
- Berry, Petrina (23 November 2009). "Search for sunken hospital ship to begin soon". Australian Associated Press General News.
- Crutcher, Michael (7 December 2008). "Let Aussie shipwreck hunters find the Centaur". The Courier-Mail.
- Dart, Jonathan (10 April 2008). "Shipwreck hunter offers to find Centaur remains". Sydney Morning Herald (smh.com.au). Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- Fraser, Andrew (21 December 2009). "Discovery proves maligned navigator got it right". The Australian. p. 3. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
- Heger, Ursula (20 December 2009). "Shipwreck hunter David Mearns confirms ship is the Centaur". The Courier-Mail. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2010.
- Hurst, Daniel (25 September 2010). "Hope floats: service lifts cloud of wartime sorrow lasting 67 years". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 26 September 2010.
- Larsen, C (16 May 1994). "Centaur memorial unveiled". The Courier-Mail. p. 2.
- Masters, Elizabeth (2010). "The sinking of Australian Hospital Ship Centaur". Memento. Vol. 39. National Archives of Australia. pp. 13–15.
- Tedmanson, Sophie (11 December 2009). "Search begins for wreckage of hospital ship Centaur destroyed in war". The Times. Retrieved 12 December 2009.
- Wilson, Neil (10 May 2003). "Sunken hearts". The Herald Sun. p. 23 (Saturday liftout).
- Other media
- Richard Carleton (reporter) (18 May 2003). "A Grave Mistake". 60 Minutes. Nine Network.
- "Transcript: A Grave Mistake". Ninemsn.com.au – 60 Minutes Archive. 2003. Archived from the original on 28 August 2006. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- "Sinking of the Centaur – Commemoration". DVA.gov.au – Commemorative Publications. Australian Government – Department of Veterans' Affairs. 2003. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- AHS Centaur oral history with Pilot Officer Lawrence Wood, State Library of Queensland
Further reading
- 2/3 AHS Centaur Association Inc. – The AHS Centaur veterans' association
- Centaur Personnel – List of personnel aboard AHS Centaur at the time of the sinking
- Hospital Ship Mystery – Find the Centaur – Collection of news articles from The Courier-Mail relating to the hospital ship and the December 2009 search
- Search diary – Search for AHS Centaur at the Wayback Machine (archived 25 July 2011) – David Mearns' daily reports on the progress of the 2009 search (archived from the original)
- Two-part article by Trevor Jackson on diving the assumed wreck of AHS Centaur
- Jackson, T. "Learning to Climb Trees – Part 1". Dive-Oz. Archived from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- Jackson, T. "Learning to Climb Trees – Part 2". Dive-Oz. Archived from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved 2 June 2009.
- Commemorating 80th anniversary of 2/3 AHS Centaur’s sinking, celebrating Qld’s response in 1948 – a centre for the nursing profession, John Oxley Libraryblog post