A cappella
A cappella | |
---|---|
Gregorian chanting | |
Cultural origins | Jewish and Christian worship |
Typical instruments | none |
Subgenres | |
Music performed a cappella, less commonly a capella,
Early history
A cappella could be as old as humanity itself. Research suggests that singing and vocables may have been what early humans used to communicate before the invention of language.[4] The earliest piece of sheet music is thought to have originated from times as early as 2000 BC,[5] while the earliest that has survived in its entirety is from the first century AD: a piece from Greece called the Seikilos epitaph.[5]
Religious origins
A cappella music was originally used in religious music, especially
Christian
The
Other composers that utilized the a cappella style, if only for the occasional piece, were
Byzantine Rite
In the Byzantine Rite of the
Opposition to instruments in worship
Present-day Christian religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment include many
Certain
Opponents of
There is no reference to instrumental music in early church worship in the New Testament, or in the worship of churches for the first six centuries.[19][20] Several reasons have been posited throughout church history for the absence of instrumental music in church worship.[nb 1]
Christians who believe in a cappella music today believe that in the Israelite worship assembly during Temple worship only the Priests of Levi sang, played, and offered animal sacrifices, whereas in the church era, all Christians are commanded to sing praises to God. They believe that if God wanted instrumental music in New Testament worship, He would have commanded not just singing, but singing and playing like he did in the Hebrew scriptures.
Instruments have divided Christendom since their introduction into worship. They were considered a Roman Catholic innovation, not widely practiced until the 18th century, and were opposed vigorously in worship by a number of
- The folk here are civil, and, like the barbarians unto the holy apostle, have shown me much kindness; and there are a sort of chosen people in the land, for they have some kirks without organs that are like ours, and are called meeting-houses, where the minister preaches without a gown.[26]
Acceptance of instruments in worship
Those who do not adhere to the
Those who subscribe to this interpretation believe that since the Christian scriptures never counter instrumental language with any negative judgment on instruments, opposition to instruments instead comes from an interpretation of history. There is no written opposition to musical instruments in any setting in the first century and a half of Christian churches (33–180 AD).[27] The use of instruments for Christian worship during this period is also undocumented. Toward the end of the 2nd century, Christians began condemning the instruments themselves.[28] Those who oppose instruments today believe these Church Fathers had a better understanding of God's desire for the church,[citation needed] but there are significant differences between the teachings of these Church Fathers and Christian opposition to instruments today.
- Modern Christians typically believe it is acceptable to play instruments or to attend weddings, funerals, banquets, etc., where instruments are heard playing religious music. The Church Fathers made no exceptions.[28] Since the New Testament never condemns instruments themselves, much less in any of these settings, it is believed that "the church Fathers go beyond the New Testament in pronouncing a negative judgment on musical instruments."[29]
- Written opposition to instruments in worship began near the turn of the 5th century.[30] Modern opponents of instruments typically do not make the same assessment of instruments as these writers,[nb 2] who argued that God had allowed David the "evil" of using musical instruments in praise.[33] While the Old Testament teaches that God specifically asked for musical instruments,[34] modern concern is for worship based on the New Testament.
Since "a cappella" singing brought a new polyphony (more than one note at a time) with instrumental accompaniment, it is not surprising that Protestant reformers who opposed the instruments (such as Calvin and Zwingli) also opposed the polyphony.[35] While Zwingli was destroying organs in Switzerland – Luther called him a fanatic – the Church of England was burning books of polyphony.[36]
Some
Jewish
While worship in the Temple in Jerusalem included musical instruments,[37] traditional Jewish religious services in the Synagogue, both before and after the last destruction of the Temple, did not include musical instruments[38] given the practice of scriptural cantillation.[39] The use of musical instruments is traditionally forbidden on the Sabbath out of concern that players would be tempted to repair (or tune) their instruments, which is forbidden on those days. (This prohibition has been relaxed in many Reform and some Conservative congregations.) Similarly, when Jewish families and larger groups sing traditional Sabbath songs known as zemirot outside the context of formal religious services, they usually do so a cappella, and Bar and Bat Mitzvah celebrations on the Sabbath sometimes feature entertainment by a cappella ensembles. During the Three Weeks musical instruments are prohibited. Many Jews consider a portion of the 49-day period of the counting of the omer between Passover and Shavuot to be a time of semi-mourning and instrumental music is not allowed during that time.[40] This has led to a tradition of a cappella singing sometimes known as sefirah music.[41]
The popularization of the Jewish chant may be found in the writings of the Jewish philosopher Philo, born 20 BC. Weaving together Jewish and Greek thought, Philo promoted praise without instruments, and taught that "silent singing" (without even vocal chords) was better still.[42] This view parted with the Jewish scriptures, where Israel offered praise with instruments by God's own command[34] The shofar is the only temple instrument still being used today in the synagogue,[43] and it is only used from Rosh Chodesh Elul through the end of Yom Kippur. The shofar is used by itself, without any vocal accompaniment, and is limited to a very strictly defined set of sounds and specific places in the synagogue service.[44] However, silver trumpets, as described in Numbers 10:1-18,[45] have been made in recent years and used in prayer services at the Western Wall.[46]
In the United States
Peter Christian Lutkin, dean of the Northwestern University School of Music, helped popularize a cappella music in the United States by founding the Northwestern A Cappella Choir in 1906. The A Cappella Choir was "the first permanent organization of its kind in America."[47][48]
An a cappella tradition was begun in 1911 by
Movements in modern a cappella over the past century include
Many a cappella groups can be found in high schools and colleges. There are amateur Barbershop Harmony Society and professional groups that sing a cappella exclusively. Although a cappella is technically defined as singing without instrumental accompaniment, some groups use their voices to emulate instruments; others are more traditional and focus on harmonizing. A cappella styles range from gospel music to contemporary to barbershop quartets and choruses.
The Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA) is a membership option for former students, whose funds support hosted competitions and events.[52][53]
A cappella music was popularized between the late 2000s and the early to mid-2010s with media hits such as the 2009–2014 TV show
Recording artists
In
Contemporary a cappella includes many vocal groups and bands who add vocal percussion or beatboxing to create a pop/rock/gospel sound, in some cases very similar to bands with instruments. Examples of such professional groups include Straight No Chaser, Pentatonix, The House Jacks, Rockapella, Mosaic, Home Free and M-pact. There also remains a strong a cappella presence within Christian music, as some denominations purposefully do not use instruments during worship. Examples of such groups are Take 6, Glad and Acappella. Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles typically include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or polyphonic accompaniment.
A cappella can also describe the isolated vocal track(s) from a
On their 1966 album titled Album, Peter, Paul and Mary included the song "Norman Normal". All the sounds on that song, both vocals and instruments, were created by Paul's voice, with no actual instruments used.[57]
In 2013, an artist by the name Smooth McGroove rose to prominence with his style of a cappella music.[58] He is best known for his a cappella covers of video game music tracks on YouTube.[59]
in 2015, an a cappella version of Jerusalem by multi-instrumentalist Jacob Collier was selected for Beats by Dre "The Game Starts Here" for the England Rugby World Cup campaign.[60][61]
Musical theatre
A cappella has been used as the sole orchestration for original works of
In 2001, The Kinsey Sicks, produced and starred in the critically acclaimed off-Broadway hit, "DRAGAPELLA! Starring the Kinsey Sicks" at New York's legendary Studio 54. That production received a nomination for a Lucille Lortel award as Best Musical and a Drama Desk nomination for Best Lyrics. It was directed by Glenn Casale with original music and lyrics by Ben Schatz.[64]
The a cappella musical Perfect Harmony, a comedy about two high school a cappella groups vying to win the National championship, made its Off Broadway debut at Theatre Row's Acorn Theatre on 42nd Street in New York City in October 2010 after a successful out-of-town run at the Stoneham Theatre, in Stoneham, Massachusetts. Perfect Harmony features the hit music of The Jackson 5, Pat Benatar, Billy Idol, Marvin Gaye, Scandal, Tiffany, The Romantics, The Pretenders, The Temptations, The Contours, The Commodores, Tommy James & the Shondells and The Partridge Family, and has been compared to a cross between Altar Boyz and The 25th Annual Putnam County Spelling Bee.[65][66]
The fourth a cappella musical to appear Off-Broadway, In Transit, premiered 5 October 2010, and was produced by Primary Stages with book, music, and lyrics by Kristen Anderson-Lopez, James-Allen Ford, Russ Kaplan, and Sara Wordsworth. Set primarily in the New York City subway system its score features an eclectic mix of musical genres (including jazz, hip hop, Latin, rock, and country). In Transit incorporates vocal beat boxing into its contemporary a cappella arrangements through the use of a subway beat boxer character. Beat boxer and actor Chesney Snow performed this role for the 2010 Primary Stages production.[67] According to the show's website, it is scheduled to reopen for an open-ended commercial run in the Fall of 2011. In 2011, the production received four Lucille Lortel Award nominations including Outstanding Musical, Outer Critics Circle and Drama League nominations, as well as five Drama Desk nominations including Outstanding Musical and won for Outstanding Ensemble Performance.
In December 2016, In Transit became the first a cappella musical on Broadway.[68]
Barbershop style
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2018) |
Barbershop music is one of several uniquely American art forms. The earliest reports of this style of a cappella music involved African Americans. The earliest documented quartets all began in barber shops. In 1938, the first formal men's barbershop organization was formed, known as the Society for the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America (S.P.E.B.S.Q.S.A), and in 2004 rebranded itself and officially changed its public name to the Barbershop Harmony Society (BHS). Today the BHS has about 22,000 members in approximately 800 chapters across the United States and Canada,[69][70] and the barbershop style has spread around the world with organizations in many other countries.[71] The Barbershop Harmony Society provides a highly organized competition structure for a cappella quartets and choruses singing in the barbershop style.
In 1945, the first formal women's barbershop organization, Sweet Adelines, was formed. In 1953, Sweet Adelines became an international organization, although it did not change its name to Sweet Adelines International until 1991. The membership of nearly 25,000 women, all singing in English, includes choruses in most of the fifty United States as well as in Australia, Canada, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Japan, New Zealand, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Headquartered in Tulsa, Oklahoma, the organization encompasses more than 1,200 registered quartets and 600 choruses.
In 1959, a second women's barbershop organization started as a break off from Sweet Adelines due to ideological differences. Based on democratic principles which continue to this day, Harmony, Inc. is smaller than its counterpart, but has an atmosphere of friendship and competition. With about 2,500 members in the United States and Canada, Harmony, Inc. uses the same rules in contest that the Barbershop Harmony Society uses. Harmony, Inc. is registered in Providence, Rhode Island.
Amateur and high school
The popularity of a cappella among high schools and amateurs was revived by television shows and movies such as
Since 2013, summer training programs have appeared, such as A Cappella Academy in Los Angeles, California (founded by Ben Bram, Rob Dietz, and Avi Kaplan) and Camp A Cappella in Dayton, Ohio (founded by Deke Sharon and Brody McDonald).[72] These programs teach about different aspects of a cappella music, including vocal performance, arranging, and beatboxing/vocal percussion.
In other countries
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Afghanistan
The
Iran
The first a cappella group in Iran is the Damour Vocal Band, which was able to perform on national television despite a ban on women singing.[75]
Pakistan
The musical show Strepsils Stereo is credited for introducing the art of a cappella in Pakistan.[76]
Sri Lanka
Composer Dinesh Subasinghe became the first Sri Lankan to write a cappella pieces for SATB choirs. He wrote "The Princes of the Lost Tribe" and "Ancient Queen of Somawathee" for Menaka De Sahabandu and Bridget Helpe's choirs, respectively, based on historical incidents in ancient Sri Lanka.[77][78][79] Voice Print is also a professional a cappella music group in Sri Lanka.[80]
Sweden
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2014) |
The European a cappella tradition is especially strong in the countries around the Baltic and perhaps most so in Sweden as described by Richard Sparks in his doctoral thesis The Swedish Choral Miracle in 2000.[81]
Swedish a cappella choirs have over the last 25 years won around 25% of the annual prestigious European Grand Prix for Choral Singing (EGP) that despite its name is open to choirs from all over the world (see list of laureates in the Wikipedia article on the EGP competition).
The reasons for the strong Swedish dominance are as explained by Richard Sparks manifold; suffice to say here that there is a long-standing tradition, an unusually large proportion of the populations (5% is often cited) regularly sing in choirs, the Swedish choral director Eric Ericson had an enormous impact on a cappella choral development not only in Sweden but around the world, and finally there are a large number of very popular primary and secondary schools ('music schools') with high admission standards based on auditions that combine a rigid academic regimen with high level choral singing on every school day, a system that started with Adolf Fredrik's Music School in Stockholm in 1939 but has spread over the country.
United Kingdom
A cappella has gained attention in the UK in recent years, with many groups forming at British universities by students seeking an alternative singing pursuit to traditional choral and chapel singing. This movement has been bolstered by organisations such as The Voice Festival UK.
Western collegiate
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2014) |
It is not clear exactly where collegiate a cappella began. The Rensselyrics of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (formerly known as the RPI Glee Club), established in 1873 is perhaps the oldest known collegiate a cappella group.[82][additional citation(s) needed] The longest continuously singing group is probably The Whiffenpoofs of Yale University,[83] which was formed in 1909 and once included Cole Porter as a member.[83] Collegiate a cappella groups grew throughout the 20th century. Some notable historical groups formed along the way include Colgate University's The Colgate 13 (1942), Dartmouth College's Aires (1946), Cornell University's Cayuga's Waiters (1949) and The Hangovers (1968), the University of Maine Maine Steiners (1958), the Columbia University Kingsmen (1949), the Jabberwocks of Brown University (1949), and the University of Rochester YellowJackets (1956).
All-women a cappella groups followed shortly, frequently as a
Jewish-interest groups such as
Increased interest in modern a cappella (particularly collegiate a cappella) can be seen in the growth of awards such as the Contemporary A Cappella Recording Awards (overseen by the
respectively.Each year, hundreds of Collegiate a cappella groups submit their strongest songs in a competition to be on The Best of College A Cappella (BOCA), an album compilation of tracks from the best college a cappella groups around the world. The album is produced by Varsity Vocals – which also produces the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella – and Deke Sharon. ). According to ethnomusicologist Joshua S. Dunchan, "BOCA carries considerable cache and respect within the field despite the appearance of other compilations in part, perhaps, because of its longevity and the prestige of the individuals behind it."[87]
Collegiate a cappella groups may also submit their tracks to Voices Only, a two-disc series released at the beginning of each school year. A Voices Only album has been released every year since 2005.[88]
In addition, from 2014 to 2019, female-identifying a cappella groups had the opportunity to send their strongest song tracks to the Women's A Cappella Association (WACA) for its annual best of women's a cappella album. WACA offered another medium for women's voices to receive recognition and released an album every year from 2014 to 2019, featuring female-identifying groups from across the United States.[89] The Women's A Cappella Association hosted seven annual festivals in California before ending operations in 2019.[90]
South Asian collegiate
South Asian a cappella features a mash-up of western and Indian/middle-eastern songs, which places it in the category of South Asian fusion music. A cappella is gaining popularity among South Asians with the emergence of primarily Hindi-English college groups. The first South Asian a cappella group was
Much like the ICCA competitions, the South Asian A Cappella competitive circuit is governed by the Association of South-Asian A Cappella, a nonprofit formed in 2016. The competitive circuit consists of qualifier, or bid competitions, as well as the national championship, All-American Awaaz. Swaram A Cappella from Texas A&M and Dhamakapella from Case Western Reserve University jointly hold the record for most All-American Awaaz Championships, with two apiece.[citation needed]
Emulating instruments
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2014) |
In addition to singing words, some a cappella singers also emulate instrumentation by reproducing instrumental sounds with their
The
Beatboxing is performed often by shaping the mouth, making pops and clicks as pseudo-drum sounds. A popular phrase that beat boxers use to begin their training is the phrase "boots and cats". As the beat boxer progresses in their training, they remove the vowels and continue on from there, emulating a "bts n cts n" sound, a solid base for beginner beat boxers. The phrase has become popular enough to where Siri recites "Boots and Cats" when you ask it to beatbox.[92]
Jazz vocalist Petra Haden used a eight-track recorder to produce an a cappella version of The Who Sell Out including the instruments and fake advertisements on her album Petra Haden Sings: The Who Sell Out in 2005.[93] Haden has also released a cappella versions of Journey's "Don't Stop Believin'", The Beach Boys' "God Only Knows" and Michael Jackson's "Thriller".[citation needed]
See also
Notes
- ^ The absence of instrumental music is rooted in various hermeneutic principles (ways of interpreting the Bible) which determine what is appropriate for worship. Among such principles are the regulative principle of worship (Ulrich Zwingli), Sola scriptura (Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli), and the history of hymn in "Christianity". Dispensationalism emphasizes the differences between the old (Law of Moses) and the new (Jesus and the Apostles) covenants, emphasizing that the majority of the practices from the Law of Moses were replaced by the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles. The absence of instrumental music in early church worship is significant given the abundance of Hebrew Bible references and commands to worship God with harp, lyre and cymbal. After several hundred years of Tabernacle worship without references to instrumental music, King David (c. 1500 BC) introduced musical instruments into Temple worship reportedly because of a commandment from God, complete with who was to sing, who was to play, and what instruments were to be used.[21]
- ^ Rather than calling the use of instruments "evil", modern opposition typically uses terms like "unspiritual"[31] or an Old Testament "shadow".[32]
Footnotes
- ^ "A cappella" in Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, accessed 5 December 2023.
- ^ a b Holmes 2007
- ^ Arnold 1998, p. 314
- ^ Barras, Colin (7 September 2014). "Did early humans, or even animals, invent music?". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 23 April 2020.
- ^ a b Andrews, Evan (18 December 2015). "What is the oldest known piece of music?". HISTORY. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
- OCLC 715159344.
- ^ a b c Hoiberg 2010, p. 1
- ^ Taruskin 2005a, p. 6
- ^ Taruskin 2005, p. 780
- ^ Taruskin 2005a, p. 73
- ^ Ware 1997, p. 268
- ^ Psalms 150:6
- ^ Taruskin 2005b, p. 234
- ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". St. Paul American Coptic Orthodox Church. Retrieved 28 July 2020.
- ^ Dunkard Brethren Church Polity. Dunkard Brethren Church. 1 November 2021. p. 9.
- ^ ISBN 978-0810807037.
- ^ "Matthew 26:30; Acts 16:25; Romans 15:9; 1 Corinthians 14:15; Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16; Hebrews 2:12, 13:15; James 5:13".
- ^ Kurfees 1911
- ^ McKinnon 1965, pp. 263, 265
- ^ Bales 1973, p. 351
- ^ 2 Chronicles 29:25–29
- ^ M'Clintock & Strong 1894, p. 762
- ^ Calvin 2009
- ^ Clarke 1844, p. 684
- ^ Ferguson 2004, p. 414
- ^ Scott 1818
- ^ McKinnon 1989, p. 2
- ^ a b McKinnon 1998, p. 72
- ^ Ferguson 1972, p. 74
- ^ Ferguson 1972, pp. 52, 53
- ^ Ferguson 1972, p. 88
- ^ Ferguson, Lewis & West 1984, p. 109
- ^ McKinnon 1989, p. 7
- ^ a b 2 Chronicles 29:25
- ^ Weiss & Taruskin 1984, p. 107
- ^ Weiss & Taruskin 1984, p. 109
- ^ 2 Chronicles 29:25–29:27
- ^ Price 2005, p. 68
- ^ McKinnon 1998, p. 85
- ^ Melamed 2013
- ^ Shircago 2013
- ^ Ferguson 1972, pp. 39–41
- ^ Olson 1967, p. 562
- ^ Alleman 2011
- ^ Numbers 10:1–10
- ^ "Silver Trumpets Pierce the Heavens in Prayer Rally Opposite Temple Mount". JewishPress.com. 23 March 2016.
- ^ Wittman 1978
- ^ van Camp 1965
- Minneapolis Community & Technical CollegeLibrary.
- ISBN 978-0199567300
- ^ "Vocal Area Network Choir Auditions". www.van.org. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
- JSTOR 1424700.
- ^ "The Contemporary A Cappella Society (CASA)". www.music.org. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
- ^ "The Persuasions: Frank Zappa's Pitch Perfect Gift to a Cappella Harmony". Trunkworthy. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
- ^ "Judy Collins interview" (PDF). Library of Congress. 12 April 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- ISSN 1441-2616.
- ^ Stookey, Paul. Liner Notes. The Peter, Paul, and Mary Album. Warner Bros Record, 1966. Vinyl.
- ^ Futter 2013
- ^ Hilliard 2013
- ^ "England rugby captain stars in Beats By Dre campaign". Retrieved 28 June 2016.
- ^ "Jerusalem – Jacob Collier (Soundtrack for Beats by Dre: "The Game Starts Here")". YouTube. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2016.
- ^ Anon 2002
- ^ Anon 1993
- ^ Anon 2008
- ^ Finkle & Bacalzo 2006
- ^ Jacobs 2006
- ^ Anon 2010a
- ^ Gans, Andrew (11 December 2016). "In Transit, New A Cappella Musical, Opens on Broadway". Playbill.
In Transit, Broadway's first a cappella musical, officially opens December 11
- ^ Burdett, Gillian (19 April 2017). "Barbershop Harmony Society to 'keep the whole world singing' in Lake George". The Lake George Examiner. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
the Society has 22,000 members
- ^ "Finding Harmony in Nashville". tnecd.com. Tennessee Department of Economic & Community Development. 13 July 2015. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
800 chapters across the U.S. and Canada
- ^ "Barbershop is universal; here are the contacts for our official affiliates". Barbershop Harmony Society. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
- ^ "Pentatonix Talks Holiday Album, Touring Goals and Teaching A Cappella to Teens". The Hollywood Reporter.
- ProQuest 330335766.
- ^ Baily, John (1999). "Afghanistan | Music and the State". In Arnold, Alison (ed.). Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Vol. 5. Routledge.
- ^ "یک تابوشکنی دیگر در صدا و سیمای این دوران / حضور پررنگ خانمها با گروه موسیقی "دامور" در تلویزیون + تصویر". نامه نیوز (in Persian). Retrieved 20 January 2022.
- ^ "Strepsils Stereo brings A Capella to Pakistan for the first time". Dawn. 11 August 2017. Retrieved 9 December 2017.
- ^ Anon 2010b
- ^ Chanmugam 2010
- ^ Perera 2010
- ^ "Searching for Songs and Music Videos – voice print". 4 October 2016. Archived from the original on 4 October 2016. Retrieved 19 March 2018.
- ^ Sparks 2000
- ^ Smith, Jim H. (Spring 2014). "Perfect Harmony". Trinity Reporter. p. 18 – via issu.com.
founded in the 19th century
- ^ a b Anon 1999
- ^ Ginsberg 2015
- ^ Altshuler 2013
- ^ Shapiro 2011
- S2CID 162252124– via Project MUSE.
- ^ Anon 2014
- ^ "Women's A Cappella Association". Women's A Cappella Association. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
- ^ "Women's a Cappella Association". Lisa Forkish. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
- ^ Pauley 2012
- ^ Domanico, Anthony. "Siri drops sick beats when you ask her to beatbox". CNET. Retrieved 4 May 2020.
- ^ Fischer, Jason (2 May 2005). "Petra Haden The Former that dog. Member Discusses Joining The Decemberists and her A capella Version of The Who Sell Out". Under the Radar. Retrieved 18 April 2024.
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- Anon (2010b). "Manaka Singers on song". The Sunday Times. Colombo, Sri Lanka. Retrieved 27 April 2012.
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- Arnold, Denis, ed. (1998). "Cappella". The New Oxford Companion to Music. Vol. I: A-J. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311316-3.
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