Abdul Hamid II
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Abdul Hamid II | |||||
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Grand viziers | See list
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Born | Fatih, Istanbul , Turkey | 21 September 1842||||
Consorts | |||||
Issue Among others | |||||
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Ottoman | |||||
Father | Abdulmejid I | ||||
Mother | Biological mother: Tirimüjgan Kadın Adoptive mother: Rahime Perestu Sultan | ||||
Religion | Sunni Islam | ||||
Tughra |
Abdulhamid or Abdul Hamid II (
Elevated to power in the wake of
In 1878, Abdul Hamid consolidated his rule by suspending both the constitution and the parliament,
Ironically, the same education institutions that the Sultan sponsored proved to be his downfall. Large sections of the pro-constitutionalist Ottoman
Early life
Hamid
Unlike many other Ottoman sultans, Abdul Hamid II visited distant countries. In the summer of 1867, nine years before he ascended the throne, he accompanied his uncle Sultan Abdul Aziz on a visit to Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867), London (12–23 July 1867), Vienna (28–30 July 1867), and capitals or cities of a number of other European countries.[12]
Accession to the Ottoman throne
Abdul Hamid ascended the throne after his brother Murad was deposed on 31 August 1876.[1][13] At his accession, some commentators were impressed that he rode practically unattended to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque, where he was presented with the Sword of Osman. Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to support liberal movements, but he acceded to the throne at a critical time. Economic and political turmoil, local wars in the Balkans, and the Russo-Turkish War threatened the Empire's very existence.
First Constitutional Era, 1876–1878
In December 1876, due to the
The delegates to the Constantinople Conference[17][18] were surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but European powers at the conference rejected the constitution as a too-radical change; they preferred the 1856 constitution (Islâhat Hatt-ı Hümâyûnu) or the 1839 Gülhane edict (Hatt-ı Şerif), and questioned whether a parliament was necessary to act as an official voice of the people.
In any event, like many other would-be reforms of the Ottoman Empire, it proved nearly impossible. Russia continued to mobilize for war, and early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire.
War with Russia
Abdul Hamid's biggest fear, near dissolution, was realized with the Russian declaration of war on 24 April 1877. In that conflict, the Ottoman Empire fought without help from European allies. Russian chancellor
As Russia could dominate the newly independent states, the Treaty of San Stefano greatly increased its influence in
Reign
Disintegration
Abdul Hamid's distrust of the reformist admirals of the Ottoman Navy (whom he suspected of plotting against him and trying to restore the constitution) and his subsequent decision to lock the Ottoman fleet (the world's third-largest fleet during the reign of his predecessor Abdul Aziz) inside the Golden Horn indirectly caused the loss of Ottoman overseas territories and islands in North Africa, the Mediterranean Sea, and the Aegean Sea during and after his reign.[19]
Financial difficulties forced him to consent to foreign control over the Ottoman national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, a large portion of the empire's revenues were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders (see Kararname of 1296).
The 1885
Political decisions and reforms
Most people expected Abdul Hamid II to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer.
His push for education resulted in the establishment of 18 professional schools; and in 1900,
Abdul Hamid also reorganized the Ministry of Justice and developed rail and telegraph systems.[1] The telegraph system was expanded to incorporate the furthest parts of the Empire. Railways connected Constantinople and Vienna by 1883, and shortly afterward the Orient Express connected Paris to Constantinople. During his rule, railways within the Ottoman Empire expanded to connect Ottoman-controlled Europe and Anatolia with Constantinople as well. The increased ability to travel and communicate within the Ottoman Empire served to strengthen Constantinople's influence over the rest of the Empire.[21]
Abdul Hamid took stringent measures regarding his security. The memory of the deposition of Abdul Aziz was on his mind and convinced him that a constitutional government was not a good idea. Because of this, information was tightly controlled and the press rigidly censored. A secret police (Umur-u Hafiye) and a network of informants was present throughout the empire, and many leading figures of the Second Constitutional Era and Ottoman successor states were arrested or exiled. School curricula were closely inspected to prevent dissidence. Ironically, the schools that Abdul Hamid founded and tried to control became "breeding grounds of discontent" as students and teachers alike chafed at the censors' clumsy restrictions.[22]
Armenian question
Abdul Hamid's new attitude did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the state's powerful reactionary elements, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude toward the counter-revolution of 13 April 1909 known as the
The Sultan's countercoup, which had appealed to conservative Islamists against the Young Turks' liberal reforms, resulted in the massacre of tens of thousands of Christian Armenians in the Adana province, known as the Adana massacre.[51]
After deposition
Abdul Hamid was conveyed into captivity at Salonica (now
In 1930, his nine widows and thirteen children were granted $50 million from his estate after a lawsuit that lasted five years. His estate was worth $1.5 billion.[52]
Abdul Hamid was the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire to hold absolute power. He presided over 33 years of decline, during which other European countries regarded the empire as the "sick man of Europe".[53]
Personal life
Abdul Hamid II was a skilled carpenter and personally crafted some high-quality furniture, which can be seen at the Yıldız Palace, Şale Köşkü, and Beylerbeyi Palace in Istanbul. He was also interested in opera and personally wrote the first-ever Turkish translations of many classic operas. He also composed several opera pieces for the Mızıka-yı Hümâyun (Ottoman Imperial Band/Orchestra, established by his grandfather Mahmud II who had appointed Donizetti Pasha as its Instructor General in 1828), and hosted the famous performers of Europe at the Opera House of Yıldız Palace, which was restored in the 1990s and featured in the 1999 film Harem Suare (it begins with a scene of Abdul Hamid watching a performance). One of his guests was the French stage actress Sarah Bernhardt, who performed for audiences.[54]
Abdul Hamid was also a good wrestler at
Paranoia
It was rumored that Abdul Hamid always carried a pistol on his person at all times. In addition to locking the Ottoman Navy in the Golden Horn, he also did not allow the army to train with live ammunition.[57]
Religion
Abdul Hamid practiced traditional Islamic
Poetry
Abdul Hamid wrote poetry, following in the footsteps of many other Ottoman sultans. One of his poems translates thus:
My Lord I know you are the Dear One (Al-Aziz)
... And no one but you are the Dear One
You are the One, and nothing else
My God take my hand in these hard times
My God be my helper in this critical hour
Impressions
In the opinion of F. A. K. Yasamee:[59]
He was a striking amalgam of determination and timidity, of insight and fantasy, held together by immense practical caution and an instinct for the fundamentals of power. He was frequently underestimated. Judged on his record, he was a formidable domestic politician and an effective diplomat.[60]
Family
Abdul Hamid had numerous consorts, but allowed none of them to have political influence; in the same way he did not allow his adoptive mother, Rahime Perestu Sultan, or other female members of his family to have such influence, though some of them still had some degree of power in private or in the daily life of the harem. The only, partial exception was Cemile Sultan, his half-sister and adoptive sister. He was convinced that his predecessors' reigns, especially those of his uncle Abdülaziz and his father Abdülmecid I, had been ruined by the excessive meddling of the women of the imperial family in affairs of state.
Consorts
Abdul Hamid had at least 23 consorts:[61][62][63][64][65][66][67]
- Nazikeda Kadın (1848 – 11 April 1895). BaşKadin (First Consort). She was an Abkhazian princess, born Mediha Hanim, lady-in-waiting to Cemile Sultan. She died prematurely after years of deep depression, due to the tragic death of her only daughter.
- haremand wanted to be Abdul Hamid's only consort. She then asked for a divorce, which he was granted to her in 1879. She had no children.
- Bedrifelek Kadın (1851–1930). Circassian Princess who took refuge in Istanbul when Russia invaded the Caucasus. She ruled Abdul Hamid's harem when Rahime Perestu Sultan died. She left Abdul Hamid when he was deposed, perhaps disappointed that their son had not been chosen as successor. She had two sons and a daughter.
- Bidar Kadın (5 May 1855 – 13 January 1918). Kabartian princess, she was considered the most beautiful and charming of Abdul Hamid's consorts. She had a son and a daughter.
- Dilpesend Kadın (16 January 1865 – 17 June 1901). Georgian. She was educated by Tiryal Hanim, the last consort of Mahmud II, who was Abdul Hamid's grandfather. She had two daughters.
- Mehmed VI. She was loved by everyone, including his other consorts and her stepchildren. She was the most influential of his consorts, but she never abused her power. She had a son, who was Abdul Hamid's favorite.
- Emsalinur Kadın (1866–1952). She entered the Palace with her sister Tesrid Hanım, who became a consort of Şehzade Ibrahim Tevfik. She was very beautiful. She did not follow Abdul Hamid into exile and died in poverty. She had a daughter.
- Destizer Müşfika Kadın (1872 – 18 July 1961). She was Abkhazian, born Ayşe Hanim. She grew up with her sister under the tutelage of Pertevniyal Sultan, the mother of Sultan Abdülaziz, uncle of Abdul Hamid. She followed Abdul Hamid into exile and was with him until his death, so much so that it is said that the sultan died in her arms. She had a daughter.
- Sazkar Hanım (8 May 1873 – 1945). She was a noble Abkhazian, born Fatma Zekiye Hanım. She was among the consorts who followed Abdul Hamid into exile, and later left Turkey with her one daughter.
- Peyveste Hanım (1873 – 1943). Abkhazian princess, born Hatice Rabia Hanim and aunt of Leyla Açba. She served Nazikeda Kadın, with her sisters, and then became the treasurer of the harem. She was highly respected. She followed her husband into exile and then her one son.
- Pesend Hanım(13 February 1876 – 5 November 1924). Born princess Fatma Kadriye Achba, she was one of Abdul Hamid's favorite consorts, and was known for her kindness, charity, and tolerance. She was one of the consorts who stayed with Abdul Hamid until his death; and, on his death, she cut her hair and threw it into the sea as a sign of mourning. She had a daughter.
- Behice Hanım (10 October 1882 – 22 October 1969). She was Sazkar Hanım's cousin and her real name was Behiye Hanim. She was arrogant and proud, initially she had to marry Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin, son of Abdul Hamid, but in the end the sultan decided to marry her himself, against Behice's will. She had two twin sons.
- Saliha Naciye Kadın (1887–1923). She was born Zeliha Ankuap and was also called Atike Naciye Kadın. Known for her kindness and modesty, she was Abdul Hamid's favorite among the consorts who stayed with him until his death. She had a son and a daughter.
- Dürdane Hanım (1869 - January 1957).
- Calibös Hanım (1890 - 1955).
- Simperver Nazlıyar Hanım.
- Bergüzar Hanım.
- Levandit Hanım.
- Ebru Hanım.
- Sermelek Hanım.
- Gevherriz Hanım.
- Mihrimend Zelide Hanım (? - 1946).
- Nevcedid Hanım.
Sons
Abdul Hamid had at least eight sons:[68][63]
- Şehzade Mehmed Selim (11 January 1870 – 5 May 1937) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. He did not get along with his father. He had eight consorts, two sons and a daughter.
- Şehzade Mehmed Abdülkadir (16 January 1878 – 16 March 1944) – with Bidar Kadın. He had seven consorts, five sons and two daughters.
- Şehzade Ahmed Nuri (12 February 1878 – 7 August 1944) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. He had a consort but no children.
- Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (19 December 1885 – 15 June 1949) – with Mezidemestan Kadın. He had four consorts and two sons.
- Şehzade Abdürrahim Hayri (15 August 1894 – 1 January 1952) – with Peyveste Hanım. He had two consorts, a son, and a daughter.
- Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin (June 22, 1901 – December 1944) – with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin. He had a consort and a son.
- Şehzade Mehmed Bedreddin (22 June 1901 – 13 October 1903) – with Behice Hanım. Twin of Şehzade Ahmed Nureddin. Born in Yıldız Palace. He died of meningitis and was buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
- Şehzade Mehmed Abid (May 17, 1905 – December 8, 1973) – with Saliha Naciye Kadın. He had two consorts but no children.
Daughters
Abdul Hamid had at least 13 daughters:[68][63]
- Ulviye Sultan (1868 – 5 October 1875) – with Nazikeda Kadın. Born in Yeni Cami.
- Zekiye Sultan (12 January 1872 – 13 July 1950) – with Bedrifelek Kadın. She married once and had two daughters. She was one of Abdul Hamid's favorite daughters.
- Fatma Naime Sultan (5 September 1876 – 1945) – with Bidar Kadın. She is the favorite daughter of Abdul Hamid, who called her "my accession daughter", because she was born close to the date of his accession to the throne. She married twice and had a son and a daughter. In 1904 she was embroiled in a scandal when she discovered that her first husband was cheating on her with her cousin Hatice Sultan, daughter of Murad V.
- Naile Sultan (9 February 1884 – 25 October 1957) – with Dilpesend Kadın. She married once, with no children.
- Seniye Sultan (1884 – 1884) – unknown motherhood.
- Seniha Sultan (1885 – 1885) – with Dilpesend Kadın. She died at five months.
- Şadiye Sultan (30 November 1886 – 20 November 1977) – with Emsalinur Kadın. She married twice and had a daughter.
- Hamide Ayşe Sultan(15 November 1887 – 10 August 1960) – with Müşfika Kadın. She was married twice and had three sons and a daughter.
- Refia Sultan (15 June 1891 – 1938) – with Sazkar Hanım. She married once and had two daughters.
- Hatice Sultan (10 July 1897 – 14 February 1898) – with Pesend Hanım. She died of smallpox and was buried in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
- Aliye Sultan (1900 – 1900) – unknown motherhood. She died a few days after her birth.
- Cemile Sultan (1900 – 1900) – unknown maternity. She died a few days after her birth.
- Samiye Sultan (16 January 1908 – 24 January 1909) – with Saliha Naciye Kadın. She died of pneumonia and was buried in the mausoleum Şehzade Ahmed Kemaleddin in the Yahya Efendi cemetery.
In popular culture
- Abdul the Damned(1935) portrays a time near the end of the sultan's life.
- Barry Unsworth's historical novel The Rage of the Vulture (1982) portrays the paranoia of Abdul Hamid's at the twilight of his sultanate (May 1908 onwards)
- In Don Rosa's comic book story "The Treasury of Croesus", Scrooge McDuck pulls out a permit which Abdul Hamid II signed in 1905, allowing McDuck carte blanche to excavate the ancient ruins of Ephesus.
- Payitaht Abdulhamid, named 'The Last Emperor' in English, is a Turkish popular historical television drama series depicting the last 13 years of the reign of Abdul Hamid II.[69]
- In Orhan Pamuk's satirical novel Nights of Plague (2021), Abdul Hamid dispatches the Ottoman Empire's chief inspector of public health, along with a Muslim epidemiologist and his wife, the sultan's niece, to the fictitious island of Mingheria to combat the bubonic plague.
Awards and honors
- Ottoman orders
- Grand Master of the Order of the Crescent
- Grand Master of the Order of Glory
- Grand Master of the Order of the Medjidie
- Grand Master of the Order of Osmanieh
- Foreign orders and decorations
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen, in Diamonds, 1881 (Austria-Hungary)[70]
- Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 13 December 1884 (Kingdom of Denmark)[71]
- Knight of the Order of the Seraphim, in Diamonds, 24 July 1879 (Kingdom of Sweden)[72]
- Kingdom of Hawaii)[73]
- Order of Saint Olav, 11 February 1885 (Kingdom of Norway)[74]
- Order of the Tower and Sword (Kingdom of Portugal)
- Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece, 19 December 1880 (Kingdom of Spain)[75]
- Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach)[76]
- Order of Saint Alexander, 1897 (Principality of Bulgaria)[77]
- Knight Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Carol I, 1907 (Kingdom of Romania)[78]
- Knight of the Order of the Annunciation, 29 November 1881 (Kingdom of Italy)[79]
- Knight of the Order of the Black Eagle, in Diamonds, 3 February 1882 (German Empire)[80]
- Kingdom of Siam)[81]
- Knight Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum, 26 June 1888 (Empire of Japan)[82]
- Knight of the Order of Saint Hubert, 1908 (Kingdom of Bavaria)[83]
Gallery
Threatened by several assassination attempts, Abdul Hamid II did not travel often (though still more than many previous rulers). Photographs provided visual evidence of what took place in his realm. He commissioned thousands of photographs of his empire, including from the Constantinople studio of Jean Pascal Sébah. The sultan presented large gift albums of photographs to various governments and heads of state, including the U.S.[84] and Great Britain.[85] The American collection is housed in the Library of Congress and has been digitized.[86]
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Abdul Hamid II, 1908 (L'Illustration)
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Enver Bey, Sultan Abdul Hamid II and Niyazi Bey
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Abdul Hamid II arrives in Thessaloniki
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Istanbul Military Museum Abdulhamid II desk
See also
- The Ottomans: Europe's Muslim Emperors
- Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque
- List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire
- List of nicknames of European royalty and nobility: A
- Payitaht: Abdülhamid, 2017 TV-drama
- Abdul the Damned
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- ^ The Grand Master of the Bulgarian Orders Archived 10 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine - official website of H.M. Simeon II
- ^ "Ordinul Carol I" [Order of Carol I]. Familia Regală a României (in Romanian). Bucharest. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2019.
- ^ Italia : Ministero dell'interno (1898). Calendario generale del Regno d'Italia. Unione tipografico-editrice. p. 54.
- ^ "Schwarzer Adler-orden". Königlich Preussische Ordensliste (in German). Vol. 1. Berlin: General-Ordenskommission. 1886. p. 9. Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2024.
- Royal Thai Government Gazette (18 December 1892). "พระราชทานเครื่องราชอิสริยาภรณ์" (PDF) (in Thai). Archived from the original(PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
- ^ 刑部芳則 (2017). 明治時代の勲章外交儀礼 (PDF) (in Japanese). 明治聖徳記念学会紀要. p. 144. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2020.
- ^ Hof- und - Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern (1910), "Königliche Orden". p. 8
- ^ William Allen, "The Abdul Hamid II Collection", History of Photography eight (1984): 119–145.
- ^ M. I. Waley and British Library, "Sultan Abdulhamid II Early Turkish Photographs in 51 Albums from the British Library on Microfiche"; Zug, Switzerland: IDC, 1987
- ^ "Ottoman Empire photographs". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 6 March 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2005.
Sources
- Abdul Hamid II Biography
- All Documents about Abdul Hamid in English from a Turkish Web Site Archived 23 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- McMeekin, Sean (2016), The Ottoman Endgame: war, revolution, and the making of the modern Middle East, 1908–1923, New York, New York: Penguin Random House, ISBN 9781594205323
- Overy, Richard. The Times Complete History of the World, HarperCollins ISBN 978-0-00-731569-7(2010)
Further reading
- Akarli, Engin D. (2001). "The Tangled Ends of an Empire and Its Sultan". In Leila Tarazi Fawaz; ISBN 978-0-231-11426-4.
- Georgeon, François (2003). Abdülhamid II. Le sultan calife. Paris: Fayard.
- Shaw, Stanford J.; Shaw, Ezel K. (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. Cambridge: ISBN 978-0-521-29166-8.
- Yasamee, F.A.K. (1996). Ottoman Diplomacy: Abdülhamid II and the Great Powers, 1878–1888. Istanbul: ISIS. ISBN 978-975-428-088-3.
- Pears, Edwin Sir (1917). The Life of Abdul Hamid (1 ed.). London: Constable and Company Ltd. Retrieved 17 March 2019 – via Internet Archive.
- Haslip, Joan (1973). The Sultan: The life of Abdul Hamid (2nd ed.). Cassell. ISBN 978-0-297-76519-6.
- Küçük, Cevdet (1988). Abdülhamid II – An article published in the first volume of Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam (in Turkish). Vol. 1 (Ab-i Hayat /el-Ahkamu's – Ser'iyye). Istanbul: ISBN 978-97-53-89428-9.
External links
- Media related to Abdül Hamid II at Wikimedia Commons
- II. Abdul Hamid Forum in English Archived 2 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine II. Abdul Hamid Forum in English
- II. Abdülhamit Dönemi Olayları – ittihat Ve Terakki Ödev Sitesi
- US Library of Congress Abdul Hamid II Photo Collection – about 1,800 photographs mounted in albums, ca. 1880–1893
- Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. .
- Newspaper clippings about Abdul Hamid II in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW