Abdul Haris Nasution
This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2022) |
Abdul Haris Nasution | |
---|---|
2nd Speaker of the People's Consultative Assembly | |
In office 20 June 1966 – 28 October 1972 | |
President | |
Deputy | See list
|
Preceded by | Chaerul Saleh |
Succeeded by | Idham Chalid |
11th Minister of Defense and Security | |
In office 10 July 1959 – 22 February 1966 | |
President | Sukarno |
Preceded by | Djuanda Kartawidjaja |
Succeeded by | Mas Sarbini |
3rd Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Indonesia | |
In office January 1962 – March 1966 | |
President | Sukarno |
Preceded by | ACM Soerjadi Soerjadarma |
Succeeded by | General Suharto (1968) |
In office December 1955 – July 1959 | |
President | Sukarno |
Preceded by | Maj. General Tahi Bonar Simatupang (1952) |
Succeeded by | ACM Soerjadi Soerjadarma |
2nd and 5th Chief of Staff of the Army | |
In office 1 November 1955 – 21 June 1962 | |
President | Sukarno |
Preceded by | Maj. Gen. Bambang Utoyo |
Succeeded by | Lt. General Ahmad Yani |
In office 27 December 1949 – 18 October 1952 | |
President | Sukarno |
Preceded by | Colonel Djatikoesoemo |
Succeeded by | Maj. Gen. Bambang Soegeng |
Personal details | |
Born | Koetanopan, Mandailing, Dutch East Indies | 3 December 1918
Died | 6 September 2000 Jakarta, Indonesia | (aged 81)
Resting place | Kalibata Heroes Cemetery 06°15′26″S 106°50′46″E / 6.25722°S 106.84611°E |
Political party | Independent |
Other political affiliations | IPKI (formerly) |
Spouse |
Johanna Sunarti (m. 1947) |
Occupation | |
Signature | |
Nickname | Pak Nas |
Military service | |
Allegiance | |
Branch/service | |
Years of service |
|
Rank | General of the army |
Unit | Infantry |
Commands | See list
|
Battles/wars | |
Awards |
|
Abdul Haris Nasution (Old Spelling: Abdoel Haris Nasution; 3 December 1918 – 6 September 2000) was a high-ranking Indonesian general and politician. He served in the military during the Indonesian National Revolution and he remained in the military during the subsequent turmoil of the Parliamentary democracy and Guided Democracy. Following the fall of President Sukarno from power, he became the Speaker of the People's Consultative Assembly under President Suharto. Born into a Batak Muslim family, in the village of Hutapungkut, Dutch East Indies, he studied teaching and enrolled at a military academy in Bandung.
He became a member of the
In 1965, an attempted coup occurred, later officially blamed on the Communist Party of Indonesia. Nasution's house was attacked, and his daughter was killed, but he managed to escape by scaling a wall and hiding in the Iraqi ambassador's residence. In the following political turmoil, he assisted in the rise of President Suharto and was appointed Speaker of the People's Consultative Assembly. He had a falling out with Suharto, who saw him as a rival, and he was pushed out of power in 1971. Once he was removed from positions of power, Nasution developed into a political opponent of Suharto's New Order Regime, though he and Suharto began to reconcile in the 1990s. He died on 6 September 2000 in Jakarta, after suffering a stroke and going into a coma. His body was interred at Kalibata Heroes Cemetery.
Early life
Nasution was born on 3 December 1918 in the village of Hutapungkut,
In 1940,
Indonesian National Revolution
Siliwangi Division
After
Deputy commander
1948 would also see Nasution rise to the position of Deputy TNI Commander. Despite being only a
Sudirman was anxious to avoid violence and wanted negotiations to be conducted. Sudirman then commissioned
On 19 December 1948, the Dutch launched a successful attack on Yogyakarta and occupied it.[13] Nasution, together with the TNI and the other commanders, retreated into the countryside to fight a guerrilla war.[14] With President Sukarno and Vice-President Mohammad Hatta in Dutch captivity, the Emergency Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI) was set up in Sumatra. In this interim government, Nasution was given the position of the Army and Territorial Commander of Java.[15] Following Dutch recognition of Indonesia's independence, the PDRI returned its powers to Sukarno and Hatta, and Nasution returned to his position as Deputy Commander to Sudirman.
Parliamentary democracy era
First term as chief of staff
In December 1949, Nasution took on his position as army chief of staff,
For this cause, Nasution and Simatupang also mobilised civilian protesters. Sukarno came out of the Presidential Palace and convinced both soldiers and civilians to go home. Nasution and Simatupang had been defeated.
Second term as chief of staff
On 27 October 1955, after three years of exile, Nasution was re-appointed to his old position as Army Chief of Staff.
On 14 March 1957, after the resignation of Prime Minister
In late 1956, there were demands by regional commanders in Sumatra for more autonomy in the provinces. When these demands were not met by the central government, the troops began to rebel, and by early 1957, had forcefully taken over the governance of Sumatra. Then, on 15 February 1958, Lieutenant Colonel
Guided Democracy era
Corruption in the army
Since 1956, Nasution had been trying to stamp out corruption in the army, but the return to the 1945 Constitution seemed to have renewed his resolve in this matter. He believed that the army should set an example for the rest of society. Not long after Sukarno's decree, Nasution sent Brigadier General Sungkono to investigate the financial dealings of Military Area Command IV/Diponegoro (Kodam) and its commander, Colonel Suharto. Sungkono's findings revealed that during his time as regional commander, Suharto had set up foundations to help local people. However, these foundations were funded through compulsory levies (instead of voluntary donations) on production and service industries.
Suharto was also involved in illegally bartering sugar for rice with
West Irian
During the struggle for independence, Sukarno had always perceived Indonesia as also including
Suharto, now a brigadier general, was commissioned by Nasution to create a strategic force unit that would be on standby, ready to be called into action at any time. Suharto was placed in charge of this task force and in March 1961, the General Army Reserve (Caduad) was formed, with Suharto being appointed as its commander.[26] Caduad would in 1963 change its name to the Army Strategic Reserve Command (Kostrad). At the beginning of 1962, Nasution and Yani were the overall commanders of the so-called Liberation of West Irian, with Suharto stationed in east Indonesia as the field commander.
Rivalry with the Communists
Around this time, Sukarno had begun to see the
Assisting Sukarno as supreme commander of ABRI would be an ABRI chief of staff. Sukarno appointed Nasution to the position of ABRI chief of staff[27] and appointed Yani as the army commander. By doing this, Sukarno had decreased Nasution's powers as the ABRI chief of staff was only responsible for administrative matters and commenced no troops. Now in a powerless position, Nasution began to think of other ways to stop the PKI's momentum. The right moment came at the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) General Session in May 1963. During the General Session, Nasution had the Indonesian National Party (PNI) as well as the Army members present put forward the motion that Sukarno be appointed president for life.[28] The rationale behind this was that with Sukarno being appointed president for life, there would be no elections, and without elections, the PKI would not be able to get in power no matter how much the party grew. The motion was carried through and Sukarno became president for life.
Division with Yani
Nasution soon began developing an attitude of hostility towards Yani. Both Nasution and Yani were anti-communists, but their attitude towards Sukarno was different. Nasution was critical of Sukarno for backing and supporting the PKI, while Yani, a Sukarno loyalist, adopted a softer stance. Nasution criticised Yani's soft stance and relations between the two soured. To make matters worse, Yani began replacing regional commanders who were close to Nasution with those who were close to himself. On 13 January 1965, a delegation of officers representing Nasution and Yani met in an attempt to reconcile the differences between the two officers.
The meeting was unsuccessful in persuading Yani to distance himself from Sukarno, but delegates agreed to hold seminars where officers could talk about the current political climate and the role of the army in politics. As the year went on, a document was circulated in Jakarta. Dubbed the Gilchrist Document, it was a letter purporting to come from British ambassador Andrew Gilchrist, and mentioned "our local army friends". Suspicion was immediately cast on the army wanting to launch a coup. Although Yani was quick to deny the allegations, the PKI began running a smear campaign, claiming that a Council of Generals was planning to overthrow the president. As the most senior officers in the Army, Nasution and Yani were implicated to be part of this Council.
G30S and Transition to New Order
Kidnapping attempt
On the morning of 1 October 1965, troops calling themselves the 30 September Movement (G30S) attempted to kidnap seven anti-communist Army officers including Nasution.[29] Lieutenant Arief was the leader of the squad assigned to capture Nasution, and his team in four trucks and two military cars travelled down a deserted Jalan Teuku Umar at 4:00 am. Nasution's home was at No. 40, a modest single-story home. The guard in the sentry box outside the house saw the vehicles coming, but upon seeing the men were soldiers he was not suspicious and did not call his superior, Sergeant Iskaq, who was in charge of the army detail guarding the house. The sergeant was in a guardroom in the front room along with half a dozen soldiers some of whom were asleep. A guard was asleep in the front garden and another was on duty at the rear of the house. In a separate cottage, two of Nasution's aides were asleep, a young army lieutenant Pierre Tendean, and assistant police commissioner Hamdan Mansjur.[30]
Before the alarm could be raised, Arief's squad had jumped the fence and overpowered the sleepy guards in the sentry box and guard room. Others entered from around the side of the house and covered it from the rear. About fifteen soldiers broke into the house. Both Nasution and his wife were bothered by mosquitoes and were awake. Neither heard the guards being overpowered but Mrs Nasution heard a door being forced. She got out of bed to check and on opening the bedroom door, she saw a
The entire Nasution household was awakened and frightened by the shooting. Nasution's mother and sister, Mardiah, also lived in the house and ran to his bedroom. Mardiah grabbed Nasution's five-year-old daughter, Irma, from her bed, cradling the child protectively in her arms, and tried to run to safety. As she ran past, a corporal from the palace guard fired a round of shots at her through a door. Mardiah was hit in the hand and Irma received three bullets in her spine. She died five days later in hospital.[31] Nasution's eldest daughter, 13-year-old Janti, and her nurse Alfiah had run to the cottage housing Nasution's aides and hid under a bed.[31]
Tendean loaded his weapon and ran from the house, but was caught within a few steps. In the darkness, he was mistaken for Nasution and taken away at gunpoint.[32] After pushing her husband out of the house, Mrs Nasution ran inside and picked up her wounded daughter. As she phoned for a doctor, Cakrabirawa troops demanded she tell them her husband's whereabouts. Reportedly she had a brief and angry exchange with Arief telling him that Nasution had been out of town for a few days.[33] A whistle blew outside and the men in the house left taking Tendean with them. The whole affair had taken nine minutes. Mrs Nasution took her wounded daughter to the Central military hospital and guards sounded the alarm. The Jakarta garrison commander, Major General Umar Wirahadikusumah, rushed to the Nasution home.[33]
A guard outside the house of Johannes Leimena, a neighbour of Nasution's and one of Indonesia's three deputy premiers, heard the commotion and walked down to the Nasution house. In the confusion, the guard was shot and killed. This led to stories of Lemeina being on the plotter's list and of an attack on Lemeina's house. However, the killing of the guard was unplanned.[33]
Nasution continued hiding in the garden of his neighbour until 6 am when he returned to his house with a broken ankle. Nasution then asked his adjutants to take him to the Ministry of Defense and Security because he thought it would be safer there. He was driven there crouching on the floor of a car. Nasution then sent a message to Suharto at Kostrad headquarters, telling him that he was alive and safe. After knowing that Suharto was taking command of the army, Nasution then ordered him to take measures such as finding the whereabouts of the president, contacting navy commander
At around 2 pm, after the G30S Movement announced the formation of a Revolutionary Council, Nasution sent another order to Suharto, Martadinata, and Judodiharjo. In the order, Nasution said that he was convinced that Sukarno had been kidnapped and taken to the G30S headquarters in Halim. He therefore ordered ABRI to free the president, restore security to Jakarta, and most importantly, appointed Suharto to head the operations.
Nasution arrived at the Kostrad headquarters at around 6 pm, just as Suharto began deploying Sarwo Edhie Wibowo's troops to secure Jakarta from the G30S Movement. There, Nasution finally received first aid for his broken ankle. Once Jakarta was safely secured, Martadinata came to the Kostrad headquarters with a copy of the Presidential Decree which appointed Pranoto. After seeing the decree, Suharto invited Martadinata and Nasution into a room to discuss the situation.
Nasution asked Martadinata how the president came to appoint Pranoto. Martadinata replied that during the afternoon he, Judodiharjo, and Dhani had attended a meeting with Sukarno at Halim to decide who should become the army commander now that Yani was dead. The meeting had decided that Pranoto should become army commander. Nasution said that Sukarno's appointment could not be accepted as the appointment came when Suharto had begun with the operations.[36] Nasution also added that he would back Suharto's decision to not let Pranoto go to Halim. Nasution and Suharto then invited Pranoto in and convinced him to delay accepting his appointment as army commander until after Suharto finished putting down the attempted coup d'état.
With Sarwo Edhie's troops, Jakarta was quickly secured. Suharto then turned his attention to Halim and began making preparations to attack the air base. To assist him, Nasution ordered the navy and the police to assist Suharto in putting down the G30S Movement. To the Air Force, Nasution issued an order saying that they would not be charged with insubordination if they refused to obey Dhani's orders. By 6 am on 2 October, Halim was overtaken and the G30S Movement was officially put down.
Missed opportunity
Although Suharto had been the man of the hour on 1 October, many of the other Army officers still turned to Nasution for leadership and had expected him to take more decisive control of the situation. However, Nasution seemed indecisive, and slowly but surely the support began to swing away from him. Perhaps this reason was because he was still grieving over his daughter, Ade Irma, who died on 6 October. In the first few weeks after G30S, Nasution was the one who constantly lobbied Sukarno to have Suharto appointed Army Commander. Sukarno, who after 1 October wanted to keep Pranoto, had originally only made Suharto the Commander of Kopkamtib, but with Nasution's constant lobbying, Sukarno was finally persuaded and on 14 October 1965, appointed Suharto as the army commander. A golden opportunity came to Nasution in December 1965 when there was talk of his being appointed as vice president to assist Sukarno in times of uncertainty.[37] Nasution did not capitalise on this and chose to do nothing. Suharto, whose political momentum was growing, took the initiative in early 1966 by issuing a statement saying that there was no need to fill the vacant vice presidency.
On 24 February 1966, Nasution was removed from his position as Minister of Defense and Security in a cabinet reshuffle. The position of ABRI Chief of Staff was also abolished. By this stage, the expectation that Nasution would do something was now gone as army officers and student movements alike rallied behind Suharto. Nevertheless, he continued to be a respected figure as many army officers visited him in the days leading up to the signing of the Supersemar document handing over authority from Sukarno to Suharto. When Suharto was about to go to the Kostrad Headquarters to wait for the delivery of the Supersemar, he called Nasution and asked him for his blessing. Nasution's wife gave the blessing on behalf of Nasution, who was not present. Nasution's political senses seemed to have returned after Suharto received the Supersemar. It was perhaps he who first realised that Supersemar not only gave Suharto emergency powers but also gave him executive control. On 12 March 1966, after Suharto had the PKI banned, Nasution suggested to Suharto that he form an emergency Cabinet.[38] Suharto, still cautious about what he could or could not do with his new powers replied that forming a cabinet was the responsibility of the president. Nasution encouraged Suharto, promising him full support but Suharto did not respond and the conversation ended abruptly.
Chairman of the MPRS
With his new powers, Suharto began purging the government of what he perceived to be communist influence. After the arrest of 15 cabinet ministers on 18 March 1966, Suharto went after the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS), removing members thought to be communist sympathizers and replacing them with members more sympathetic to the army's cause. During the purge, the MPRS also lost its chairman,
On 22 June, Sukarno delivered a speech entitled Nawaksara (Nine Points) in front of the assembly. Nasution and the other MPRS members, who had hoped for Sukarno's account of G30S were disappointed. Nothing about the G30S was mentioned. Instead, Sukarno seemed to give an account of his appointment as president for life, his plan of work as president, and how the Constitution worked in practice. This MPRS would refuse to ratify this speech. Over the next two weeks, Nasution presided over a busy MPRS General Session. Under his Chairmanship, the MPRS took measures such as banning
As 1966 wore on, Sukarno was increasingly on the defensive and his popularity was at an all-time low. Suharto, who knew that his political victory was near, took to playing the role of the polite Javanese by constantly giving Sukarno reassuring words and defending him from the protests. Other generals such as Nasution were not as merciful, as the year drew to a close, Nasution claimed that Sukarno should be held responsible for the dire situation in which his Government left Indonesia. Nasution also called for Sukarno to be taken to trial. On 10 January 1967, Nasution and the MPRS assembled again as Sukarno submitted his report (he did not deliver it in person as a speech) which was hoped to finally address the issue of G30S. Dubbed the Pelengkap Nawaksara (Nawaksara Addendum), the report spoke about Sukarno's insistence on calling G30S the 1 October Movement (Gestok). On G30S, Sukarno said that PKI made a big mistake on the morning of 1 October but also added that this was due to the cunning of the neo-colonialists.
In a subtle jab towards Nasution, Sukarno added that if he was going to be blamed for the G30S, the Minister of Defense and Security at the time should also be blamed for not seeing the G30S coming and stopping it before it happened.[39] The report was once again rejected by the MPRS. In February 1967, the DPR called for an MPRS Special Session in March to replace Sukarno with Suharto. Sukarno seemed resigned to his fate, officially handing day-to-day control of the Government to Suharto on 22 February 1967 and requiring him only to report if necessary. Finally, on 12 March 1967, Sukarno was officially removed from power by the MPRS. Nasution then swore Suharto into office as the acting president. A year later on 27 March 1968, Nasution presided over Suharto's election and inauguration as full President.
In the New Order
Fall from power and opposition
Despite the assistance that Nasution gave him in his rise to power, Suharto viewed Nasution as a rival and immediately began working to remove him from power. In 1969, Nasution was barred from speaking at Seskoad and the Military Academy.
In July 1978, together with former vice-president Hatta, Nasution set up the Institute for Constitutional Awareness Foundation (YLKB). Suharto's government moved quickly and did not allow YLKB to conduct its first meeting in January 1979. Nasution and the YLKB did not give up. In August 1979, it managed to hold a meeting which DPR members attended. Perhaps significantly, ABRI members attended the meeting. During the meeting, Nasution criticised the New Order for not fully implementing Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution.[41] Suharto did not take the criticism lightly. On 27 March 1980, at an ABRI Meeting, Suharto in a speech said that ABRI members should be ready to defend their seats in the DPR and that they should align themselves with forces that are for Pancasila and the 1945 Constitution such as Golkar. Suharto followed this up with another speech on 16 April 1980, on the occasion of Kopassus' anniversary. in which he denied allegations of corruption and claimed that if he had to, he would kidnap MPR members if that would prevent the MPR from having the two-thirds majority required to change the constitution.
Nasution then decided that the opponents of the regime should make a major statement. He gathered ABRI members who were disgruntled with the Suharto regime such as former governor of Jakarta
Reconciliation
By the beginning of the 1990s, Suharto was beginning to adopt a policy of political openness, and enforcement of the Petition of 50 Signatories' punishment was loosened. In June 1993, when he was in hospital because of illness, Nasution was visited by the army's top brass. He then received a visit from
In an interview in 1995, Nasution encouraged Indonesia to go through a reconciliation process so that the nation could be united under the leadership of Suharto. On 5 October 1997, on the occasion of ABRI's anniversary, Nasution was given the honorary rank
Death
Nasution died on 6 September 2000 in Jakarta after suffering a stroke and going into a coma.[45][46] He was buried at the Kalibata Heroes Cemetery, South Jakarta.[47]
Family
Nasution was married to Johanna Sunarti (1 November 1923 – 20 March 2010), a Surabaya-born humanitarian, with whom he had two daughters, Hendriyanti Sahara (1952 – 18 June 2021) and Ade Irma Suryani.[48][49]
Miscellaneous
Umar Wirahadikusumah served as Nasution's adjutant from 1946 to 1947.
The former residence of Nasution at Jl Teuku Umar No 40, Menteng, in central Jakarta has been converted into a museum.[50]
Honours
As an officer in the Indonesian Army (1945–1971), and then as Speaker of the People's Consultative Assembly (1966–1972), he received several Star Decorations, namely:
National honours[51]
- Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 2nd Class (Indonesian: Bintang Republik Indonesia Adipradana) (26 September 1997) [52]
- Star of the Republic of Indonesia, 3rd Class (Indonesian: Bintang Republik Indonesia Utama) (10 January 1963) [53]
- Star of Mahaputera, 2nd Class (Indonesian: Bintang Mahaputera Adipradana) (1961) [54]
- The Sacred Star (Indonesian: Bintang Sakti)
- Military Distinguished Service Star (Indonesian: Bintang Dharma)
- Star of Yudha Dharma, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Yudha Dharma Utama)
- Star of Kartika Eka Paksi, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Kartika Eka Paksi Utama)
- Star of Jalasena, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Jalasena Utama)
- Star of Swa Bhuwana Paksa, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Swa Bhuwana Paksa Utama)
- Star of Bhayangkara, 1st Class (Indonesian: Bintang Bhayangkara Utama)
- Guerrilla Star (Indonesian: Bintang Gerilya)
- Indonesian Armed Forces "8 Years" Service Star (Indonesian: Bintang Sewindu Angkatan Perang Republik Indonesia)
- Anniversary of the Struggle for Independence Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Peringatan Perjuangan Kemerdekaan)
- Military Long Service Medal, 16 Years Service (Indonesian: Satyalancana Kesetiaan XVI Tahun)
- Navy Distinguished Service Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Jasadharma Angkatan Laut)
- 1st Independence War Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan I)
- 2nd Independence War Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Perang Kemerdekaan II)
- Military Operational Service Medal for Madiun 1947 (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M I)
- Military Operational Service Medal for Angkatan Ratu Adil 1947 (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M II)
- Military Operational Service Medal for Republik Malaku Selatan 1950 (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M III)
- Military Operational Service Medal for Sulawesi 1958 (Indonesian: Satyalancana G.O.M IV)
- Military Service Medal for Irian Jaya 1962 (Indonesian: Satyalancana Satya Dharma)
- Northern Borneo Military Campaign Medal (Indonesian: Satyalancana Wira Dharma)
- Medal for Combat Against Communists (Indonesian: Satyalancana Penegak)
Foreign honours[55]
- Germany: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1963)
- Netherlands: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau (1971)
- Thailand: Knight Grand Cross of the Most Exalted Order of the White Elephant (1960)
- Ethiopian Empire: Grand Cross and Collar of the Order of the Holy Trinity (1968)
- Yugoslavia:
- First Rank of the Order of the Yugoslav Flag with Sash (1961)
- First Rank of the Order of the People's Army with Laurer Wreath (1960)
- Philippines:
- Grand Cross (Datu) of the Order of Sikatuna (1967)
- Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (1963)
- Soviet Union: Jubilee Medal "Twenty Years of Victory in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945"
References
- ^
Bachtiar, Harsja W. (1998). Siapa Dia?: Perwira Tinggi Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Darat [Who's Who?: Senior Officers of the Indonesian Army] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Penerbit Djambatan. p. 220. ISBN 978-979-428-100-0.
- ^
Conboy, Kenneth J.; Morrison, James (1999). Feet to the fire: CIA covert operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958. Naval Institute Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-55750-193-6.
- ^ Prsetyo & Hadad 1998, pp. 21–34.
- ^
Keegan, John (1979). World Armies. Macmillan. p. 314. ISBN 978-0-333-17236-0.
- ^ Prsetyo & Hadad 1998, pp. 35–41.
- ^ a b c "General Abdul Haris Nasution". Daily Telegraph. 19 September 2000. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
- ^ "Abdul Haris Nasution". pdat.co.id. Archived from the original on 20 December 2005. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ Cribb, Robert (October 2001). "Military strategy in the Indonesian revolution: Nasution's concept of "Total People's War" in theory and practice". War & Society. 19 (2): 143–154. .
- ^
Kahin, George McTurnan (1952). Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia. Cornell University Press. p. 233. ISBN 0-8014-9108-8.
- ^ Ricklefs 1982, p. 215.
- ^ a b Ricklefs 1982, p. 217.
- ^ a b Elson 2001, p. 26.
- OCLC 56360152.
- OCLC 56360152.
- ^ Nasution, Abdul Haris (1953). Fundamentals of Guerrilla Warfare. Praeger. p. 6.
- ^ Sujatmoko, Bambang (8 March 1997). "Dwifungsi Di Tiga Zaman". Gatra. Archived from the original on 18 September 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ Muhtarom, Iqbal; Amanda Sair, Puspita (17 October 2021). "17 Oktober 1952, Saat Para Perwira TNI AD Arahkan Moncong Meriam ke Istana". Tempo. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
- ^ ISBN 9781137052018.
- ^ "59. Memorandum From the Director of the Office of Southeast Asian Affairs (Mein) to the Assistant Secretary of State for Far Eastern Affairs (Robertson)". United States State Department. 14 April 1958.
- ^ Elson 2001, pp. 57–58.
- ^ Elson 2001, p. 61.
- ^ Sumbogo, Priyono B. (8 March 1997). "Jalan Tengah". Gatra. Archived from the original on 18 September 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ Elson 2001, p. 73.
- OCLC 252488150.
- ^ Bob Catley and Vinsensio Dugis, The Garuda and The Kangaroo, pp.20–21.
- ^ Elson 2001, p. 79.
- ^ Wibisono, Christianto (20 January 2004). "Hentikan "Bharata Yuda" 2004". Suara Pembaruan. Archived from the original on 16 August 2004. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ Utomo, Sumaun. "Fakta Kebenaran Korban Tragedi Peristiwa 65". A. Umar Said Official Website. Archived from the original on 1 November 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ Hughes 2002, pp. 40–42.
- ^ Hughes 2002, p. 40.
- ^ a b c Hughes 2002, p. 41.
- ^ Hughes 2002, pp. 41–42.
- ^ a b c Hughes 2002, p. 42.
- ^ Fic 2005, p. 268.
- ^ Fic 2005, p. 269.
- ^ Fic 2005, pp. 270–271.
- ^ Hughes 2002, p. 215.
- ^ Suwalu, Sulangkung (8 May 1999). "Peran Nasution Dalam Antar Soeharto Ke Puncak Kekuasaan". munindo.brd.de. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ "Transcript of Nawaksara Supplementary". Tempo. 5 April 1997. Archived from the original on 4 May 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ Pour, Julius (7 September 2000). "Pasang Surut Jenderal yang Selalu Terpinggirkan". Kompas. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ "Sejarah Jenderal Beroposisi" [General History of Opposition]. Detik. 19 November 1998. Archived from the original on 18 September 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ^ "Nasution Meets Suharto Again". 18 August 1993. Archived from the original on 15 September 2006. Retrieved 4 November 2006.
- ISBN 978-979-788-343-0.
- ISBN 978-979-27-2526-1.
- ^ Mulyani, Ester; Rosalina, Olivia; Azril, Andi (7 September 2000). "Jenderal Besar Nasution Wafat". liputan6.com (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
- ^ "[INDONESIA-NEWS] FORUM KEADILAN - Jenderal AH Nasution Wafat". library.ohiou.edu (in Indonesian). 7 September 2000. Archived from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2016.
- ^ Mastura, Chadijah; Kusnohadi, Agus (6 September 2000). "Suasana Duka Menyelimuti Pemakaman Pak Nas". liputan6.com (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 26 May 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2023.
- ^ Yuli, ed. (21 March 2010). "Istri Jenderal Nasution Wafat dalam Usia 87 Tahun". Kompas (in Indonesian). Retrieved 26 December 2016.
- ^ Liputan6.com (18 June 2021). "Putri Sulung Jenderal AH Nasution Meninggal Dunia Akibat Gagal Ginjal". liputan6.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 6 June 2023.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Prasetya, Anggara Wikan (27 September 2020). "Museum AH Nasution, Saksi Bisu Kisah Tragis G30S/PKI". KOMPAS.com (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
- ^ Indonesian Army Bureau of History 1981, p. 120.
- ^ Daftar WNI yang Menerima Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Republik Indonesia 1959 - sekarang (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2020.
- ^ Daftar WNI yang Mendapat Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Mahaputera tahun 1959 s.d. 2003 (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2020.
- ^ Daftar WNI yang Mendapat Tanda Kehormatan Bintang Mahaputera tahun 1959 s.d. 2003 (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2020.
- ^ Indonesian Army Bureau of History 1981, p. 120-121.
Cited sources
- Elson, Robert (2001). Suharto: A Political Biography. UK: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-77326-3.
- Fic, Victor M. (2005). Kudeta 1 Oktober 1965: Sebuah Studi Tentang Konspirasi (in Indonesian) (Indonesian ed.). Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Indonesia. ISBN 978-979-461-555-3.
- Hughes, John (2002) [1967]. The End of Sukarno: A Coup That Misfired: A Purge That Ran Wild (3rd ed.). Singapore: Archipelago Press. ISBN 978-981-4068-65-9.
- Prsetyo, Adi; Hadad, Toriq, eds. (1998). Jenderal Tanpa Pasukan, Politisi Tanpa Partai: Perjalana Hidup A.H. Nasution [A General without Troops, a Politician without a Party: The Life of A.H. Nasution] (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Pusat Data dan Analisa Tempo (PDAT). ISBN 978-979-9065-02-5.
- Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1982). A History of Modern Indonesia (reprint ed.). Macmillan Southeast Asian. ISBN 978-0-333-24380-0.
- Indonesian Army Bureau of History (1981), Sejarah TNI-AD 1945—1973: Riwayat Hidup Singkat Pimpinan Tentara Nasional Indonesia Angkatan Darat, vol. XIII
Further reading
- Fundamentals of Guerrilla Warfare. New York: Praeger, 1965
- C.L.M. Penders and Ulf Sundhaussen, Abdul Haris Nasution: a political biography (St. Lucia; New York: University of Queensland Press, 1985)
- McElhatton, Emmet (8 May 2008). "Guerrilla Warfare and the Indonesian Strategic Psyche". Small Wars Journal. Retrieved 3 August 2012.
External links
(in Indonesian) Abdul Haris Nasution profile on Tokohindonesia.com