Abdus Salam

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For other people with the name, see
Abdus Salam (name)
.

Abdus Salam
St. John's College, Cambridge
(PhD)
Known for
Spouse
Amtul Hafeez Begum
​
​
(m. 1949⁠–⁠1996)​
​
(m. 1968⁠–⁠1996)​
Children6
Awards
Atoms for Peace Prize (1968)
Royal Medal (1978)
Matteucci Medal (1978)
Nobel Prize in Physics (1979)
Nishan-e-Imtiaz (1979)
Lomonosov Gold Medal (1983)
Copley Medal (1990)
Scientific career
FieldsTheoretical physics
Institutions
ThesisDevelopments in quantum theory of fields (1952)
Doctoral advisorNicholas Kemmer
Other academic advisorsPaul Matthews
Doctoral students
Other notable students
Signature

Mohammad Abdus Salam

electroweak unification theory.[8] He was the first Pakistani and the first Muslim from an Islamic country to receive a Nobel Prize in science and the second from an Islamic country to receive any Nobel Prize, after Anwar Sadat of Egypt.[9]

Salam was scientific advisor to the

Ahmadiyya Muslim community, to which Salam belonged, non-Muslim.[17] In 1998, following the country's Chagai-I nuclear tests, the Government of Pakistan issued a commemorative stamp, as a part of "Scientists of Pakistan", to honour the services of Salam.[18]

Salam's notable achievements include the

black holes, as well as the work on modernising quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. As a teacher and science promoter, Salam is remembered as a founder and scientific father of mathematical and theoretical physics in Pakistan during his term as the chief scientific advisor to the president.[10][19] Salam heavily contributed to the rise of Pakistani physics within the global physics community.[20][21] Up until shortly before his death, Salam continued to contribute to physics, and to advocate for the development of science in third-world countries.[22]

Biography

Youth and education

Abdus Salam was born on 29 January 1926 in the

Ahmadi Islam.[23][24] His grandfather, Gul Muhammad, was a religious scholar as well as a physician, and his father Choudhary Muhammad Hussain was a minor educational official and a teacher. Abdus Salam's father was stationed in a poor farming district in Jhang, where Abdus Salam spent his early years. His birthplace is often given as Jhang, but he was, in fact, born in Saktokdas in the Sahiwal District, where his mother Hajira Begum's family was living, and where she returned to give birth, as was customary with the first child. His sister was also born in Saktokdas, whereas his six brothers were all born in Jhang.[7]

The name Choudhary Muhammad Hussain gave his son was Abd al-Salam which means "Servant of God". Abd means servant and Salam is one of the 99 names of God in the Qur'an. In English, his name is usually transliterated as Abdus Salam, which should be understood as a single given name. His father followed the custom of not giving a surname. Later in his life he added Mohammad to his name.[25]

St John's College, Cambridge is where Salam studied.

Salam very early established a reputation throughout Punjab for outstanding brilliance and academic achievement. At age 14, Salam scored the highest marks ever recorded for the entrance examination at the

Bombay to study. In 1947, he came back to Lahore.[28] But he soon picked up Mathematics as his concentration.[29] Salam's mentor and tutors wanted him to become an English teacher, but Salam decided to stick with Mathematics.[30] As a fourth-year student there, he published his work on Srinivasa Ramanujan's problems in mathematics, and took his B.A. in Mathematics in 1944.[31] His father wanted him to join the Indian Civil Service (ICS).[30] In those days, the ICS was the highest aspiration for young university graduates and civil servants occupied a respected place in civil society.[30] Respecting his father's wish, Salam tried for the Indian Railways but did not qualify for the service as he failed the medical optical tests.[30] The results further concluded that Salam failed a mechanical test required by railway engineers to gain a commission in the Railways, and that he was too young to compete for the job.[30] Therefore, the Railways rejected Salam's job application.[30] While in Lahore, Salam went on to attend the graduate school of Government College University.[30] He received his MA in Mathematics from the Government College University in 1946.[22] That same year, he was awarded a scholarship to St John's College, Cambridge, where he completed a BA degree with Double First-Class Honours in Mathematics and Physics in 1949.[32] In 1950, he received the Smith's Prize from Cambridge University for the most outstanding pre-doctoral contribution to Physics.[33] After finishing his degrees, Fred Hoyle advised Salam to spend another year in the Cavendish Laboratory to do research in experimental physics, but Salam had no patience for carrying out long experiments in the laboratory.[30] Salam returned to Jhang and renewed his scholarship and returned to the United Kingdom to do his doctorate.[30]

He obtained a PhD degree in theoretical physics from the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge.[34][35] His doctoral thesis titled "Developments in quantum theory of fields" contained comprehensive and fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics.[36] By the time it was published in 1951, it had already gained him an international reputation and the Adams Prize.[37] During his doctoral studies, his mentors challenged him to solve within one year an intractable problem which had defied such great minds as Paul Dirac and Richard Feynman.[30] Within six months, Salam had found a solution for the renormalization of meson theory. As he proposed the solution at the Cavendish Laboratory, Salam had attracted the attention of Hans Bethe, J. Robert Oppenheimer and Dirac.[30]

Academic career

After receiving his doctorate in 1951, Salam returned to Lahore at the

Tom Kibble, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, Riazuddin, and John Ward
.

In 1957, Punjab University conferred Salam with an

Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1959.[7] Salam took a fellowship at the Princeton University in 1959, where he met with J. Robert Oppenheimer[46] and to whom he presented his research work on neutrinos.[47] Oppenheimer and Salam discussed the foundation of electrodynamics, problems and their solution.[48] His dedicated personal assistant was Jean Bouckley. In 1980, Salam became a foreign fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences.[49]

Scientific career

Early in his career, Salam made an important and significant contribution in quantum electrodynamics and quantum field theory, including its extension into particle and nuclear physics. In his early career in Pakistan, Salam was greatly interested in mathematical series and their relation to physics. Salam had played an influential role in the advancement of nuclear physics, but he maintained and dedicated himself to mathematics and theoretical physics and focused Pakistan to do more research in theoretical physics.[30] However, he regarded nuclear physics (nuclear fission and nuclear power) as a non-pioneering part of physics as it had already "happened".[30] Even in Pakistan, Salam was the leading driving force in theoretical physics, with many scientists he continued to influence and encourage to keep their work on theoretical physics.[30]

Salam had a prolific research career in theoretical and high-energy physics.

global symmetry.[55] In 1967-8, Salam and Weinberg incorporated the Higgs mechanism into Glashow's discovery, giving it a modern form in electroweak theory, and thus theorised half of the Standard Model.[56] In 1968, together with Weinberg and Sheldon Glashow
, Salam finally formulated the mathematical concept of their work.

C-violation, thus he formulated the magnetic photon.[57]

Following the publication of

electroweak symmetry breaking. Salam provided a mathematical postulation for the interaction between the Higgs boson and the electroweak symmetry theory.[58]

In 1972, Salam began to work with

Indian-American theoretical physicist Jogesh Pati. Pati wrote to Salam several times expressing interest to work under Salam's direction, in response to which Salam eventually invited Pati to the ICTP seminar in Pakistan. Salam suggested to Pati that there should be some deep reason why the protons and electrons are so different and yet carry equal but opposite electric charge. Protons are composed of quarks, but the electroweak theory was concerned only with the electrons and neutrinos, with nothing postulated about quarks. If all of nature's ingredients could be brought together in one new symmetry, it might reveal a reason for the various features of these particles and the forces they feel. This led to the development of Pati–Salam model in particle physics.[59] In 1973, Salam and Jogesh Pati were the first to notice that since Quarks and Leptons have very similar SU(2) × U(1) representation content, they all may have similar entities.[60] They provided a simple realisation of the quark-lepton symmetry by postulating that lepton number was a fourth quark colour, dubbed "violet".[61]

Physicists had believed that there were four fundamental forces of nature: the gravitational force, the strong and weak nuclear forces, and the electromagnetic force. Salam had worked on the unification of these forces from 1959 with Glashow and Weinberg. While at Imperial College London, Salam successfully showed that weak nuclear forces are not really different from electromagnetic forces, and two could inter-convert. Salam provided a theory that shows the unification of two fundamental forces of nature, weak nuclear forces and the electromagnetic forces, one into another.

grand unified theory
.

Government work

Sign on the road named after Abdus Salam in CERN, Geneva

Abdus Salam returned to Pakistan in 1960 to take charge of a government post given to him by President

Quaid-e-Azam University, research in theoretical and particle physics was engaged.[20] Under Salam's direction, physicists tackled the greatest outstanding problems in physics and mathematics[20] and their physics research reached a point that prompted worldwide recognition of Pakistani physicists.[10]

The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics was founded by Salam in 1964.

From the 1950s, Salam had tried establishing high-powered research institutes in Pakistan, though he was unable to do so. He moved PAEC Headquarters to a bigger building, and established research laboratories all over the country.

Balochistan Province
. Salam served as its first technical director.

Salam played an influential and significant role in Pakistan's development of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. In 1964, he was made head of Pakistan's

Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and Technology (PINSTECH) at Nilore, Islamabad.[72]

Space programme

Main article:
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission

In early 1961, Salam approached President Khan to lay the foundations of Pakistan's first executive agency to co-ordinate space research.

aerospace engineer.[73] Turowicz was made the first technical director of the space centre, and a programme of rocket testing ensued. In 1964, while in the US Salam visited the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and met with nuclear engineers Salim Mehmud and Tariq Mustafa.[74] Salam signed another agreement with the NASA which launched a programme to provide training to Pakistan's scientists and engineers.[74] Both nuclear engineers returned to Pakistan and were inducted into SUPARCO.[66]

Nuclear weapons programme

See also: Project-706 § Organization, and Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction

Salam knew the importance of

Ahmaddiya denomination to be non-Islamic.[77]

In 1965, Salam led the establishing of the nuclear research institute—

International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics and Contemporary Needs
(INSC), where each year since 1976 scientists from all over the world come to Pakistan to interact with local scientists. The first annual INSC conference was held on advanced particle and nuclear physics.

In November 1971, Salam met with

Indian nuclear programme. On 20 January 1972, Salam, as Science Advisor to the President of Pakistan, managed and participated in a secret meeting of nuclear scientists with former Prime Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, in Multan, known as the 'Multan Meeting'. At this meeting Bhutto orchestrated the development of a deterrence programme.[81][82] At the meeting, only I. H. Usmani protested, believing that the country had neither the facilities or talent to carry out such an ambitious and technologically remanding project, whilst Salam remained quiet.[83] Here, Bhutto entrusted Salam and appointed Munir Khan as Chairman of PAEC, and head of the atomic bomb program, as Salam had supported Khan.[84] A few months after the meeting, Salam, Khan, and Riazuddin, met with Bhutto in his residence where the scientists briefed him about the nuclear weapons program.[85] After the meeting, Salam established the 'Theoretical Physics Group' (TPG) in PAEC. Salam led groundbreaking work at TPG until 1974.[77][86][87]

An office was set up for Salam in the

Pokhran-I – in 1974, Munir Ahmad Khan had called a meeting to initiate work on an atomic bomb. Salam was there and Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi was appointed head of the Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) in PAEC.[93]

The DTD was set up to co-ordinate the work of the various specialised groups of scientists and engineers working on different aspects of the atomic bomb.

Ahmadiyya Community was declared as not-Islamic; he lodged a public and powerful protest against Bhutto regarding this issue and gave great criticism to Bhutto over his control over science.[77] In spite of this, Salam maintained close relations with the theoretical physics division at PAEC who kept him informed about the status of the calculations needed to calculate the performance of the atomic bomb, according to Norman Dombey.[77] After seeing Indian aggression, the Siachen conflict in Northern Pakistan, followed by India's Operation Brasstacks in Southern Pakistan, Salam again renewed his ties with senior scientists working in the atomic bomb projects, who had kept him informed about the scientific development of the program.[77] In the 1980s, Salam personally approved many appointments and a large influx of Pakistani scientists to the associateship program at ICTP and CERN, and engaged in research in theoretical physics with his students at the ICTP.[77]

In 2008, Indian scholar Ravi Singh noted in his book The Military Factor in Pakistan that, "in 1978, Abdus Salam with PAEC officials, paid a secret visit to China, and was instrumental in initiating industrial nuclear cooperation between the two countries."[83] Although he had left the country, Salam did not hesitate to advise the PAEC and Theoretical and Mathematical Physics Group on important scientific matters, and kept his close association with TPG and PAEC.[96]

Advocacy for science

In 1964, Salam founded the

International Nathiagali Summer College (INSC) to promote science in Pakistan.[98] The INSC is an annual meeting of scientists from all over the world who come to Pakistan and hold discussions on physics and science.[98] Even today, the INSC holds annual meetings, and Salam's pupil Riazuddin has been its director since its start.[99]

In 1997, the scientists at ICTP commemorated Salam and renamed ICTP as the "

Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) and was a leading figure in the creation of a number of international centres dedicated to the advancement of science and technology.[100]

During a visit to the Institute of Physics at

Global South and the Global North, thus contributing to a more peaceful world.[102]

In 1981, Salam became a founding member of the World Cultural Council.[103]

Although Salam left Pakistan, he did not terminate his connection to home.

I. H. Usmani, considered him as their mentor and a teacher.[citation needed
]

Personal life

Abdus Salam was a very private individual, who kept his public and personal lives quite separate.

Oxford University. Two of his daughters are Anisa Bushra Salam Bajwa and Aziza Rahman.[citation needed
]

Religion

Salam was an

Ahmadi,[37] who saw his religion as a fundamental part of his scientific work. He once wrote that "the Holy Quran enjoins us to reflect on the verities of Allah's created laws of nature; however, that our generation has been privileged to glimpse a part of His design is a bounty and a grace for which I render thanks with a humble heart."[37]
[check quotation syntax] During his acceptance speech for the Nobel Prize in Physics, Salam quoted verses from the Quran and stated:

"Thou seest not, in the creation of the All-merciful any imperfection, Return thy gaze, seest thou any fissure? Then Return thy gaze, again and again. Thy gaze, Comes back to thee dazzled, aweary." (

67:3–4
) This, in effect, is the faith of all physicists; the deeper we seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the dazzlement for our gaze.[108]

In 1974, the Pakistan parliament made the Second Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan that declared Ahmadis to be non-Muslim. In protest, Salam left Pakistan for London. After his departure, he did not completely cut his ties to Pakistan, and kept a close association with the Theoretical Physics Group as well as academic scientists from the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission.[101]

Death

The grave of Abdus Salam at Rabwah, Pakistan with the word 'Muslim' obscured.

Abdus Salam died on 21 November 1996 at the age of 70 in Oxford, England, from progressive supranuclear palsy.[109] His body was returned to Pakistan and kept in Darul Ziafat, where some 13,000 men and women visited to pay their last respects. Approximately 30,000 people attended his funeral prayers.[110]

Salam was buried in

Ahmadiyya Community at Rabwah, Punjab, Pakistan, next to his parents' graves. The epitaph on his tomb initially read "First Muslim Nobel Laureate". The Pakistani government removed "Muslim" and left only his name on the headstone. They are the only nation to officially declare that Ahmadis are non-Muslim.[111] The word "Muslim" was initially obscured on the orders of a local magistrate before moving to the national level.[112] Under Ordinance XX of 1984,[113][114] being an Ahmadi, he was considered a non-Muslim according to the definition provided in the Second Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan.[115]

Legacy

His craving for nationalism is symbolized best by his wish to be buried in his own homeland... He loved his country and its soil. We projected him as a hero, a father, and role model for our young scientists...

— Masud Ahmad, on Salam's legacy[14]

Salam's work in Pakistan has been far reaching and regarded as highly influential. He is remembered by his peers and students as the "father of Pakistan's school of Theoretical Physics" as well as Pakistan's science. Salam was a charismatic and iconic figure, a symbol among them of what they were working or researching toward in their fields.

Space Research Commission of and was its first director.[50] In 1998, the Government of Pakistan issued a commemorative stamp to honour Salam as part of its "Scientists of Pakistan" series.[18] His alma mater, Government College Lahore, now a university, has the Abdus Salam Chair in Physics and Abdus Salam School of Mathematical Sciences named after him.[116] The Abdus Salam Chair was also established in his honour at the Syed Babar Ali School of Science and Engineering in the Lahore University of Management Sciences.[117] He made a significant contribution towards the 2012 success in the search for the Higgs boson.[118]

Salam has been commemorated by noted and prominent Pakistani scientists, who were also his students. Many scientists have recalled their college experiences.

plasma physics
at the Government College University and student of Salam, wrote:

A commemorative stamp honouring Abdus Salam

When Dr. Salam was to deliver a lecture, the hall would be packed and although the subject was

Imperial College and seek Dr. Salam's help. He would give a patient hearing to everyone including those who were talking nonsense. He treated everyone with respect and compassion and never belittled or offended anyone. Dr. Salam's strength was that he could "sift jewels from the sand".[119]

Ishfaq Ahmad
, a lifelong friend of Salam recalls:

Dr Salam was responsible for sending about 500 physicists, mathematicians and scientists from Pakistan, for PhD's to the best institutions in UK and USA.[119]

In August 1996 another lifelong friend, Munir Ahmad Khan, met Salam in Oxford. Khan, who headed the nuclear weapons and nuclear energy programmes, said:

My last meeting with Abdus Salam was only three months ago. His disease had taken its toll and he was unable to talk. Yet he understood what was said. I told him about the celebration held in Pakistan on his seventieth birthday. He kept staring at me. He had risen above praise. As I rose to leave he pressed my hand to express his feelings as if he wanted to thank everyone who had said kind words about him. Dr. Abdus Salam had deep love for Pakistan in spite of the fact that he was treated unfairly and indifferently by his own country. It became more and more difficult for him to come to Pakistan and this hurt him deeply. Now he has returned home finally, to rest in peace for ever in the soil that he loved so much. May be in the years to come we will rise above our prejudice and own him and give him, after his death, what we could not when he was alive. We Pakistanis may choose to ignore Dr. Salam, but the world at large will always remember him.[119]

However, Salam's legacy is often ignored in the Pakistani education system despite his achievements. According to the documentary 'Salam: The First ****** Nobel Laureate,' very few young Pakistanis have heard of him, and his name is not mentioned in Pakistani school textbooks.[120][121] In 2020, a group of students belonging to the State Youth Parliament desecrated an image of Salam that was present at a college in Gujranwala, while chanting slogans against the Ahmadiyya community.[122] This deliberate effort to stifle mention of Salam is attributed to Salam belonging to the Ahmadiyya Muslim community, who have faced state-sponsored discrimination since the 1970s.

Documentaries on Abdus Salam

Salam – the film

LLC started formally researching and developing a film on the science and life of Abdus Salam in 2004, two years after the producers had conceived of the idea. A fundraising teaser was released by Kailoola Productions to coincide with Salam's birth anniversary on 29 January 2017.

Indian-American documentary filmmaker Anand Kamalakar, was announced in 2018 and released on Netflix in October 2019.[124][125]

Abdus Salam

Pilgrim Films released The Dream of Symmetry in September 2011.[126] Their press release describes it as presenting "the extraordinary figure of Abdus Salam, who not only was an outstanding scientist but also a generous humanitarian and a valuable person. His rich and busy life was an endless quest for symmetry, that he pursued in the universe of physical laws and in the world of human beings."[127]

Honours

Dr. Salam's genius was like a magic... And there was always an element of eastern mysticism in his ideas that left one wondering how to fathom his genius...

— Masud Ahmad, honoring Abdus Salam[14]

Salam was elected to the

Government College University.[132] On 22 November 2009, the Director of the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics gifted the original Nobel Prize Certificate to his alma mater.[133] In 2011, GCU's Salam Chair in Physics held a one-day-long conference that was attributed to Abdus Salam.[132] Salam's students Ghulam Murtaza, Pervez Hoodbhoy, Riazuddin and Tariq Zaidi discussed the life and works of Salam, and brought to light his achievements in Pakistan and Physics.[132] While covering the media converge on Salam's tribute, the News International, referred to Salam as the "great Pakistan scientist".[134]

In 1998, the

Government College University.[136]

That it has taken nearly four decades for this country to honour a globally renowned scientist who was one of its own, is a sad reflection of the priorities that hold sway here... For Dr Salam was an Ahmadi, a persecuted minority in Pakistan, and his faith rather than his towering achievements was the yardstick by which he was judged.

— Dawn[137]

In 2008, in an opinion piece, Daily Times called Salam "one of the greatest scientists Pakistan has ever produced".[138][failed verification]

In 2015, the Academy of Young Researchers and Scholars, Lahore, renamed its library as the "Abdus Salam Library".

Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, near the headquarters of the Canadian branch of the Ahmadiyya Community, of which Abdus Salam was a member, the community has named a street after him, 'Abdus Salam Street',[140] while at CERN in Geneva, Switzerland there is 'Route Salam'. Additionally, there are two annual Abdus Salam science fairs, one held in Canada and the other in the US. Each is organised as a National event for young scientists from the Ahmadiyya Community in an effort to motivate youth toward scientific endeavour.[141]

On 6 December 2016, Pakistan's Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif approved the renaming of Quaid-i-Azam University's (QAU) physics centre to the Professor Abdus Salam Center for Physics. It was also announced that the Professor Abdus Salam Fellowship will be established, which will include five annual fully funded Pakistani PhD students in the field of Physics in "leading international universities".[142]

In November 2020, English Heritage erected a blue plaque in Salam's honour in Campion Road, Putney, London, at the house that was his London home for almost 40 years.[143][144]

In June 2023,

Imperial College Central Library as the Abdus Salam Library.[145]

Awards and recognition

Abdus Salam with Pakistani intellectual Syed Qasim Mahmood in 1986

In 1979, Salam was awarded the 1979

National Center for Physics (NCP) contains an Abdus Salam Museum dedicated to the life of Salam and his work as he discovered and formulated the Electroweak Theory.[10]
Below is the list of awards that were conferred to Salam in his lifetime.

Awards named after Salam

The

Third World Academy of Sciences in Trieste, Italy. First given in 1995, the award is presented to the people who have served the cause of science in the Developing World.[152] The Abdus Salam Shield of Honor in Mathematics was initiated by the National Mathematical Society of Pakistan to promote and recognize quality research in Mathematics in 2015. It was awarded for the first time in 2016.[153]

Contributions

Salam's primary focus was research on the physics of elementary particles. His particular numerous groundbreaking contributions included:

Institutes named after Abdus Salam and other named entities

See also

References

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Sources

External links

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Government offices
Preceded by Science Advisor to the Prime minister Secretariat
6 March 1960 – 7 September 1974 		Succeeded by
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