Abenaki
Wαpánahki | |
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People | Alnôbak (Wôbanakiak) |
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Language | Wabanaki |
The Abenaki (Abenaki: Wαpánahki) are Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands of Canada and the United States. They are an Algonquian-speaking people and part of the Wabanaki Confederacy. The Eastern Abenaki language was predominantly spoken in Maine, while the Western Abenaki language was spoken in Quebec, Vermont, and New Hampshire.
While Abenaki peoples have shared cultural traits, they did not historically have a centralized government.[4] They came together as a post-contact community after their original tribes were decimated by colonization, disease, and warfare.
Names
The word Abenaki and its syncope, Abnaki, are both derived from Wabanaki, or Wôbanakiak, meaning "People of the Dawn Land" in the Abenaki language.[3] While the two terms are often confused, the Abenaki are one of several tribes in the Wabanaki Confederacy.
The name is spelled several ways including Abnaki, Abinaki, and Alnôbak.[5]
Wôbanakiak is derived from wôban ("dawn" or "east") and aki ("land")
The Abenaki people also call themselves Alnôbak, meaning "Real People" (c.f.,
Historically, ethnologists have classified the Abenaki by geographic groups: Western Abenaki and Eastern Abenaki. Within these groups are the Abenaki bands:
Western Abenaki
- Arsigantegok (also Arrasaguntacook, Ersegontegog, Assagunticook, Anasaguntacook), lived along the St. Francis River in Québec. Principal village: St. Francis (Odanak). The people were referred to as St. Francis River Abenakis, and this term gradually was applied to all Western Abenaki.[7]
- Cowasuck (also Cohass, Cohasiac, Koasek, Koasek, Coos – "People of the Pines"), lived in the upper Connecticut River Valley. Principal village: Cowass, near Newbury, Vermont.
- Swanton, Vermont.[8]
- Sokoki (also Sokwaki, Squakheag, Socoquis, Sokoquius, Zooquagese, Soquachjck, Onejagese – "People Who Separated"), lived in the Middle and Upper Connecticut River Valley. Principal villages: Squakheag, Northfield, Massachusetts, and Fort Hill.
- Pennacook (also Penacook, Penikoke, Openango), lived in the Merrimack Valley, therefore sometimes called Merrimack. Principal village Penacook, New Hampshire. The Pennacook were once a large confederacy who were politically distinct and competitive with their northern Abenaki neighbors.
Smaller tribes:
- Amoskeay
- Cocheco
- Nashua
- Ossipee, lived along the shores of Ossipee Lakein east-central New Hampshire. Often classed as Eastern Abenaki.
- Pemigewasset
- Piscataqua
- Souhegan
- Winnipesaukee (also Winnibisauga, Wioninebeseck, Winninebesakik – "region of the land around lakes"), lived along the shores of Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire.
Wabanaki Nation
- St. Francois River and Magog River.
- Wôlinak (also Becancour, MRC Becancour), lived around Trois-Rivières, Centre-du-Québec, and included settlements along the Bécancour River.
Eastern Abenaki
- Androscoggin (also Alessikantekw, Arosaguntacock, Amariscoggin), lived in the Androscoggin Valley and along the St. Francis River, therefore often called St. Francis River Abenaki.
- Kennebec (also Kinipekw, Kennebeck, Caniba, later known as Norridgewock), lived in the Kennebec River Valley in northern Maine. Principal village: Norridgewock (Naridgewalk, Neridgewok, Noronjawoke); other villages: Amaseconti (Amesokanti, Anmissoukanti), Kennebec, and Sagadahoc.
- federally recognized tribe.
- White Mountains. Principal village Pigwacket was located on the upper Saco River near present-day Fryeburg, Maine. Occupied an intermediate location, therefore sometimes classed as Western Abenaki.
Smaller tribes:
- Apikwahki
- Amaseconti, lived between the upper Kennebec and Androscoggin rivers in western Maine.
- Kwupahag (also Kwapahag)
- Ossipee, lived along the shores of Ossipee Lake in east-central New Hampshire. Sometimes classed as Western Abenaki.
- Rocameca, lived along the upper Androscoggin River, near Canton, Maine.
- southern Maine.
Maliseet and Passamaquoddy:
- federally recognized tribe.
- federally recognized tribe.
Location
The homeland of the Abenaki, called Ndakinna (Our Land; alternately written as N'dakinna or N'Dakinna), previously extended across most of what is now northern
English colonial settlement in New England and frequent violence forced many Abenaki to migrate to
In those days, the Abenaki practiced a
During the Anglo-French wars, the Abenaki were allies of France, having been displaced from Ndakinna by immigrating English settlers. An anecdote from the period tells the story of a Maliseet war chief named
There are about 3,200 Abenaki living in Vermont and New Hampshire, without reservations, chiefly around Lake Champlain.[citation needed] The remaining Abenaki people live in multi-racial towns and cities across Canada and the US, mainly in Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and northern New England.[4]
In December 2012, the Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation created a tribal forest in the town of Barton, Vermont. This forest was established with assistance from the Vermont Sierra Club and the Vermont Land Trust. It contains a hunting camp and maple sugaring facilities that are administered cooperatively by the Nulhegan. The forest contains 65 acres (26 ha).[12] The Missiquoi Abenaki Tribe owns forest land in the town of Brunswick, Vermont, centered around the Brunswick Springs. These springs are believed to be a sacred Abenaki site.
Language
The Abenaki language is closely related to the
The language is
History
There is archeological evidence of indigenous people in what is today New Hampshire for at least 12,000 years.[13][14]
In
In 1614,
Around 1669, the Abenaki started to emigrate to Quebec due to conflicts with English colonists and
Abenaki wars
When the
During Queen Anne's War in 1702, the Abenaki were allied with the French; they raided numerous English colonial settlements in Maine, from Wells to Casco, killing about 300 settlers over ten years. They also occasionally raided into Massachusetts, for instance in Groton and Deerfield in 1704. The raids stopped when the war ended. Some captives were adopted into the Mohawk and Abenaki tribes; older captives were generally ransomed, and the colonies carried on a brisk trade.[18]
The Third Abenaki War (1722–25), called
The Abenaki from St. Francois continued to raid British settlements in their former homelands along the New England frontier during
Canada
The development of tourism projects has allowed the Canadian Abenaki to develop a modern economy, while preserving their culture and traditions. For example, since 1960, the Odanak Historical Society has managed the first and one of the largest aboriginal museums in Quebec, a few miles from the Quebec-Montreal axis. Over 5,000 people visit the Abenaki Museum annually. Several Abenaki companies include: in Wôlinak, General Fiberglass Engineering employs a dozen natives, with annual sales exceeding C$3 million. Odanak is now active in transportation and distribution. Notable Abenaki from this area include the documentary filmmaker Alanis Obomsawin (National Film Board of Canada).[20]
United States
Maine: federally recognized tribes
The
Vermont: state-recognized tribes
The Missisquoi Abenaki applied for federal recognition as an Indian tribe in the 1980s but failed to meet four of the seven criteria.[22][23] The U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs found that less than 1% of the Missisquoi's 1,171 members could show descent from an Abenaki ancestor. The bureau's report concluded that the petitioner is "a collection of individuals of claimed but mostly undemonstrated Indian ancestry with little or no social or historical connection with each other before the early 1970's."[24]
State recognition allows applicants to seek certain scholarship funds reserved for American Indians and to for members to market artwork as American Indian or Native American-made under the 1990
In 2002, the State of Vermont reported that the Abenaki people have not had a "continuous presence" in the state and had migrated north to Quebec by the end of the 17th century.[26] Facing annihilation, many Abenaki had begun emigrating to Canada, then under French control, around 1669.[citation needed]
"Race-shifting" controversy
The Abenaki Nation, based in Quebec, claim that those self-identifying as Abenaki in Vermont are settlers making false claims to Indigenous ancestry.[27][24][28][29] While the Odanak and Wolinak Abenaki First Nations in Quebec initially believed claims from residents of Vermont who said they were Abenaki, the Odanak reversed their position in 2003, calling on the groups in Vermont to provide them with genealogical evidence of Indigenous ancestry.[24]
Scholars have not been able to find credible evidence of the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Indigenous ancestry.[24] Anthropological research from the first half of the 20th century indicates that no Abenaki community actively existed in Vermont during that time period.[30]
Researcher Darryl Leroux characterizes the Vermont Abenaki's claims of Abenaki ancestry as "race-shifting," arguing that genealogical and archival evidence shows that most members of the state-recognized tribes are descended from white French-Canadians.[30] Leroux found that only 2.2 percent of the Missisquoi Abenaki membership has Abenaki ancestry, with the rest of the organization's root ancestors being primarily French Canadian and migrating to Vermont in the mid-nineteenth century.[30] The Abenaki Nation of Missisquoi's shifting claims about its root ancestors as well as loose membership critieria are consistent with race-shifting patterns.[30]
Leroux's research prompted renewed calls by the Abenaki First Nations to reassess Vermont's state recognition process.[31]
New Hampshire and minority recognition
New Hampshire does not recognize any Abenaki tribes.[22] It has no federally recognized tribes or state-recognized tribes; however, it established the New Hampshire Commission on Native American Affairs in 2010.[32] The various Cowasuck, Abenaki and other Native and heritage groups are represented to the Commission.
In 2021, a bill was introduced to the New Hampshire legislature to allow New Hampshire communities to rename locations in the Abenaki language.[33] This bill did not pass.[34]
Culture
There are a dozen variations of the name "Abenaki", such as Abenaquiois, Abakivis, Quabenakionek, Wabenakies and others.
The Abenaki were described in the Jesuit Relations as not cannibals, and as docile, ingenious, temperate in the use of liquor, and not profane.[35]
Abenaki lifeways were similar to those of Algonquian-speaking peoples of southern New England. They cultivated food crops and built villages on or near fertile river floodplains. They also hunted game, fished, and gathered wild plants and fungi.[4]
Unlike the
Most of the year, Abenaki lived in dispersed bands of extended families. Bands came together during the spring and summer at seasonal villages near rivers, or somewhere along the seacoast for planting and fishing. During the winter, the Abenaki lived in small groups further inland. These villages occasionally had to be fortified, depending on the alliances and enemies of other tribes or of Europeans near the village. Abenaki villages were quite small with an average number of 100 residents.[4]
Most Abenaki crafted dome-shaped, bark-covered wigwams for housing, though a few preferred oval-shaped longhouses.[4][36] During the winter, the Abenaki lined the inside of their conical wigwams with bear and deer skins for warmth.
Gender, food, division of labor, and other cultural traits
The Abenaki were a farming society that supplemented agriculture with hunting and gathering. Generally the men were the hunters. The women tended the fields and grew the crops.[37] In their fields, they planted the crops in groups of "sisters". The three sisters were grown together: the stalk of corn supported the beans, and squash or pumpkins provided ground cover and reduced weeds.[37] The men would hunt bears, deer, fish, and birds.
The Abenaki were a patrilineal society, which was common among New England tribes. In this they differed from the six Iroquois tribes to the west in New York, and from many other North American Native tribes who had
Groups used the consensus method to make important decisions.
Storytelling
Storytelling is a major part of Abenaki culture. It is used not only as entertainment but also as a teaching method. The Abenaki view stories as having lives of their own and being aware of how they are used. Stories were used as a means of teaching children behavior. Children were not to be mistreated, and so instead of punishing the child, they would be told a story.[38]
One of the stories is of Azban the Raccoon. This is a story about a proud raccoon that challenges a waterfall to a shouting contest. When the waterfall does not respond, Azban dives into the waterfall to try to outshout it; he is swept away because of his pride. This story would be used to show a child the pitfalls of pride.[39]
Mythology
Ethnobotany
The Abenaki smash the flowers and leaves of Ranunculus acris and sniff them for headaches.[40][41] They consume the fruit of Vaccinium myrtilloides as part of their traditional diet.[42] They also use the fruit[43] and the grains of Viburnum nudum var. cassinoides[44] for food.[45]
Many other plants are used for various healing and treatment modalities, including for the skin, as a disinfectant, as a cure-all, as a respiratory aid, for colds, coughs, fevers, grippe, gas, blood strengthening, headaches and other pains, rheumatism, demulcent, nasal inflammation, anthelmintic, for the eyes, abortifacent, for the bones, antihemorrhagic, as a sedative, anaphrodisiac, swellings, urinary aid, gastrointestinal aid, as a hemostat, pediatric aid (such as for teething), and other unspecified or general uses.[46]
They use Hierochloe odorata (sweetgrass), Apocynum (dogbane), Betula papyrifera (paper birch), Fraxinus americana (white ash), Fraxinus nigra (black ash), Laportea canadensis (Canada nettle), a variety of Salix species, and Tilia americana (basswood, or American linden) var. americana for making baskets, canoes, snowshoes, and whistles.[47] They use Hierochloe odorata and willow to make containers, Betula papyrifera to create containers, moose calls and other utilitarian pieces, and the bark of Cornus sericea (red osier dogwood) ssp. sericea for smoking.[48]
They also use
The Abenaki use the gum of Abies balsamea for slight itches and as an antiseptic ointment.[50] They stuff the leaves,[51] needles and wood into pillows as a panacea.[52]Population and epidemics
Before the Abenaki, except the Pennacook and
The new diseases continued to strike in epidemics, starting with smallpox in 1631, 1633, and 1639. Seven years later, an unknown epidemic struck, with influenza passing through the following year. Smallpox affected the Abenaki again in 1649, and diphtheria came through 10 years later. Smallpox struck in 1670, and influenza in 1675. Smallpox affected the Native Americans in 1677, 1679, 1687, along with measles, 1691, 1729, 1733, 1755, and finally in 1758.[4]
The Abenaki population continued to decline, but in 1676, they took in thousands of refugees from many southern New England tribes displaced by settlement and King Philip's War. Because of this, descendants of nearly every southern New England Algonquian tribe can be found among the Abenaki people. A century later, fewer than 1,000 Abenaki remained after the American Revolution.
In the
Fiction
Lydia Maria Child wrote of the Abenaki in her short story, "The Church in the Wilderness" (1828). Several Abenaki characters and much about their 18th-century culture are featured in the Kenneth Roberts' novel Arundel (1930). The film Northwest Passage (1940) is based on a novel of the same name by Roberts.
The Abenaki are featured in Charles McCarry's historical novel Bride of the Wilderness (1988), and James Archibald Houston's novel Ghost Fox (1977), both of which are set in the eighteenth century; and in Jodi Picoult's Second Glance (2003) and Lone Wolf (2012) novels, set in the contemporary world. Books for younger readers both have historical settings: Joseph Bruchac's The Arrow Over the Door (1998) (grades 4–6) is set in 1777; and Beth Kanell's young adult novel, The Darkness Under the Water (2008), concerns a young Abenaki-French Canadian girl during the time of the Vermont Eugenics Project, 1931–1936.
The first sentence in Norman Mailer's novel Harlot's Ghost makes reference to the Abenaki: "On a late-winter evening in 1983, while driving through fog along the Maine coast, recollections of old campfires began to drift into the March mist, and I thought of the Abnaki Indians of the Algonquin tribe who dwelt near Bangor a thousand years ago."
Non-fiction
Letters and other non-fiction writing can be found in the anthology Dawnland Voices, edited by Siobhan Senier. Selections include letters from leader of the early praying town,
Accounts of life with the Abenaki can be found in the
Maps
Maps showing the approximate locations of areas occupied by members of the Wabanaki Confederacy (from north to south):
-
Miꞌkmaq
-
Maliseet,
Passamaquoddy -
Eastern Abenaki (Arosaguntacook, Pigwacket/Pequawket)
-
Western Abenaki (Arsigantegok, Missisquoi, Cowasuck, Sokoki, Pennacook)
Notable historic Abenaki people
Please list living people under their First Nation or state-recognized tribe.
- Indian Joe (c. 1739–1819), an 18th-century Mi'kmaw scout, adopted by the Abenaki[54]
- Joseph Laurent (1839–1917), chief, author, language advocate, businessman[55]
- Henry Lorne Masta (1853–1943), chief, language advocate, and author[56]
- silent film actor Dark Cloud[57]
Notable contemporary Abenaki people
- Jeanne Brink (born 1944), basket artist[58]
- Annick Obonsawin (born 1983), canadian actress
See also
Footnotes
- ^ "Canada Census Profile 2021". Census Profile, 2021 Census. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. May 7, 2021. Retrieved January 3, 2023.
- ^ "Québec Census Profile 2021". Census Profile, 2021 Census. Statistics Canada Statistique Canada. May 7, 2021. Retrieved January 3, 2023.
- ^ a b c d e "Abenaki". U*X*L Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. 2008. Archived from the original on June 11, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2012 – via HighBeam Research.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Lee Sultzman (July 21, 1997). "Abenaki History". Archived from the original on April 11, 2010. Retrieved March 20, 2010.
- ^ A Time Before New Hampshire by Michael J. Caduto
- ^ Snow, Dean R. 1978. "Eastern Abenaki". In Northeast, ed. Bruce G. Trigger. Vol. 15 of Handbook of North American Indians, ed. William C. Sturtevant. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pg. 137. Cited in Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pg. 401. Campbell uses the spelling wabánahki.
- ISBN 978-0806125688
- ^ "Who We Are". Abenaki Nation. Archived from the original on February 10, 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
- ^ Waldman, Carl. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes: Third Edition (New York: Checkmark Books, 2006) p. 1
- ISBN 978-2-921703-07-9.
After having lived for several decades around the city of Lévis, the Abenaki settled in Odanak and Wôlinak in 1700 in one of the most picturesque and rich farming districts in Québec.
- ^ "Culture". Penobscot Nation. Retrieved July 5, 2017.
- ^ "Nulhegan Abenaki attain first tribal forestland in more than 200 years". VTDigger. December 18, 2012. Archived from the original on November 16, 2018. Retrieved November 15, 2018.
- ^ "12,000 Years Ago in the Granite State". New Hampshire Humanities. Retrieved October 4, 2023.
- ^ Harris, Michael (2021). "N'dakinna: Our Homeland...Still – Additional Examples of Abenaki Presence in New Hampshire". Spectrum. 10 (1): 1. Retrieved October 5, 2023.
- ^ Muir, Diana, Reflections in Bullough's Pond, University Press of New England.
- ISBN 0-689-12000-1.
- ^ "Worlds rejoined". Cape Cod online.
- ^ Kenneth Morrison, The Embattled Northeast: the Elusive Ideal of Alliance in Abenaki-Euramerican Relations (1984)
- ISBN 9781851096978.
- ^ "Administration". Cbodanak.com. Archived from the original on July 20, 2012. Retrieved October 30, 2012.
- ^ "Tribal Directory". U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. Archived from the original on December 23, 2012. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
- ^ a b "State-Recognized Tribes". National Conference of State Legislatures. Archived from the original on October 25, 2022. Retrieved March 20, 2022.
- ^ Bureau of Indian Affairs (July 2, 2007). "Final Determination against Federal Acknowledgment of the St. Francis / Sokoki Band of Abenakis of Vermont". Federal Register.
- ^ a b c d Robinson, Shaun (November 14, 2023). "'A false narrative': Abenaki leaders dispute the legitimacy of Vermont's state-recognized tribes". VTDigger. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- ^ Hallenbeck, Terri. Abenaki Turn to Vermont Legislature for Recognition Burlington Free Press[permanent dead link] January 20, 2011. Retrieved January 20, 2011
- ^ Dillon, John (March 20, 2002). "State Says Abenaki Do Not Have "Continuous Presence"". Vermont Public Radio. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
- ^ Abenakis of Odanak (June 2, 2023). "Letter to Vermont conservation groups".
- ^ Fennario, Tom (September 12, 2022). "Abenaki Nation in Quebec says tribes bearing its name in Vermont should not be recognized". APTN News.
- ^ Rancourt, Joanie (November 25, 2019). "DÉNONCIATION DE GROUPES AUTOPROCLAMÉS ACTIFS SUR LE NDAKINA".
- ^ ISSN 0161-6463.
- ^ "Press release: ABENAKI GROUP OF MISSISQUOI: RESEARCH FINDINGS REVEAL TROUBLING IRREGULARITIES IN THE STATE OF VERMONT'S RECOGNITION PROCESS" (PDF). Abenaki Heritage. July 31, 2023.
- ^ "Commission on Native American Affairs". New Hampshire Department of Natural & Cultural Resources. Retrieved March 20, 2022.
- ^ Ramer, Holly (January 21, 2021). "Bill promotes Native American history through NH place names". Associated Press. No. 161.
- ^ "New Hampshire Senate Bill 33 (Prior Session Legislation)". LegiScan. Retrieved March 20, 2022.
- ^ Reuben Gold Thwaites, ed. (1900). Travels and Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France, 1610—1791. The Burrows Company. Archived from the original on September 7, 2006. Retrieved November 7, 2006.
- OCLC 67361229.
- ^ a b "What We Ate". Cowasuck Band of the Pennacook-Abenaki People. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
- ^ Joe Bruchac. "The Abenaki Perspective on Storytelling". Abenaki Nation. Archived from the original on February 10, 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
- ^ "Raccoon and the Waterfall". Abenaki Nation. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques 1947 Ethnobotanique Abenakise. Archives de Folklore 11:145–182 (p. 166)
- doi:10.1139/b81-287. Retrieved February 16, 2023.
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 152, 171
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 152
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 173
- ^ A full list of their ethnobotany can be found at the Native American Ethnobotany Database (159 documented plant uses).
- ^ "BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database". naeb.brit.org. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
- ^ "BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database". naeb.brit.org. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
- ^ "BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database". naeb.brit.org. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
- ^ "BRIT - Native American Ethnobotany Database". naeb.brit.org. Retrieved December 17, 2019.
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 164
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 155
- ^ Rousseau, Jacques, 1947, Ethnobotanique Abenakise, Archives de Folklore 11:145-182, page 163-164
- ^ Women's Indian Captivity Narratives, ed. Kathryn Zabelle Derounian-Stodola, Penguin, London, 1998
- ^ Johnson, Arthur (2007). "Biography of Indian Joe". nedoba.org. Ne-Do-Ba (Friends), A Maine Nonprofit Corporation. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 11, 2018.
- ^ "Conseil des Abenakis Odanak". Archived from the original on April 4, 2015.
- JSTOR 10.5749/j.ctttsd1b.
- JSTOR 533199.
- ^ "Miniature Baskets by Jeanne Brink". Dawnland Voices.
Bibliography
- Aubery, Joseph Fr. and Stephen Laurent, 1995. Father Aubery's French Abenaki Dictionary: English translation. S. Laurent (Translator). Chisholm Bros. Publishing
- Baker, C. Alice, 1897. True Stories of New England Captives Carried to Canada during the Old French and Indian Wars. Press of E.A. Hall & Company, Greenfield, Massachusetts
- Charland, Thomas-M. (O.P.), 1964. Les Abenakis D'Odanak: Histoire des Abénakis D'Odanak (1675–1937). Les Éditions du Lévrier, Montreal, QC
- Coleman, Emma Lewis. New England Captives Carried to Canada: Between 1677 and 1760 During the French and Indian Wars, Heritage Books, 1989 (reprint 1925).
- Day, Gordon, 1981. The Identity of the Saint Francis Indians, National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, National Museum Of Man Mercury Series ISSN 0316-1862.
- Laurent, Joseph (1884). New Familiar Abenakis and English Dialogues. Quebec: Joseph Laurent (Sozap Lolô Kizitôgw), Abenakis, Chief of the Indian village of St. Francis, P.Q. Reprinted (paperback) Sept. 2006: Vancouver: Global Language Press], ISBN 0-9738924-7-1; Dec. 2009 (hardcover): Kessinger Publishings Legacy Reprint Series; and April 2010 (paperback): Nabu Press.
- Masta, Henry Lorne, 1932. Abenaki Legends, Grammar and Place Names. ISBN 978-1-897367-18-6
- Maurault, Joseph-Anselme (Abbot), 1866. Histoire des Abénakis, depuis 1605 jusqu'à nos jours. Published at L'Atelier typographique de la "Gazette de Sorel", QC
- Moondancer and Strong Woman, 2007. A Cultural History of the Native Peoples of Southern New England: Voices from Past and Present. ISBN 0-9721349-3-X
Further reading
Other grammar books and dictionaries include:
- Gordon M. Day's two-volume Western Abenaki Dictionary (August 1994), Paperback: 616 pages, Publisher: Canadian Museum Of Civilization
- Chief Henry Lorne Masta's Abenaki Legends, Grammar, and Place Names (1932), Odanak, Quebec, reprinted in 2008 by Global Language Press
- Joseph Aubery's Father Aubery's French-Abenaki Dictionary (1700), translated into English-Abenaki by Stephen Laurent, and published in hardcover (525 pp.) by Chisholm Bros. Publishing.
External links
Media related to Abenaki at Wikimedia Commons
- Penobscot Nation, Maine
- Conseil des Abénakis d'Odanak, Quebec
- Abenaki (Wôbanakiôdwawôgan), Omniglot
- Missisquoi Abenaki Tribal Council
- Koasek Traditional Band of the Koas Abenaki Nation
- Nulhegan Abenaki Tribe
- Elnu Tribe of the Abenaki
- Native Languages of the Americas: Abnaki-Penobscot (Abenaki Language)
- Abenaki language – recordings
- Western Abenaki Dictionary and Radio Online