Aboriginal Australians
Torres Strait Islander Flag , it was proclaimed
a flag of Australia in 1995. | |
Total population | |
---|---|
984,000 (2021) Papuans |
Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, excluding the ethnically distinct people of the Torres Strait Islands.
People first migrated to
Aboriginal Australians have a wide variety of cultural practices and beliefs that make up the oldest continuous cultures in the world.[4][5] At the time of European colonisation of Australia, they consisted of complex cultural societies with more than 250 languages[6] and varying degrees of technology and settlements.[vague] Languages (or dialects) and language-associated groups of people are connected with stretches of territory known as "Country", with which they have a profound spiritual connection. Over the aeons, Aboriginal people developed complex trade networks, inter-cultural relationships, law and religions.[3][7]
Contemporary Aboriginal beliefs are a complex mixture, varying by region and individual across the continent..
In the past, Aboriginal people lived over large sections of the
In the 2021 census, Indigenous Australians comprised 3.8% of Australia's population.[1]
Most Aboriginal people today speak
Aboriginal people, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of severe health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community.
Origins
The ancestors of present-day Aboriginal Australian people migrated from Southeast Asia by sea during the
A 2017 paper in Nature evaluated artefacts in Kakadu and concluded "Human occupation began around 65,000 years ago".[14]
A 2021 study by researchers at the
Genetics
Genetic studies have revealed that Aboriginal Australians largely descended from an
Aboriginal people are genetically most similar to the indigenous populations of
In a 2001 study, blood samples were collected from some Warlpiri people in the Northern Territory to study their genetic makeup (which is not representative of all Aboriginal peoples in Australia). The study concluded that the Warlpiri are descended from ancient Asians whose DNA is still somewhat present in Southeastern Asian groups, although greatly diminished. The Warlpiri DNA lacks certain information found in modern Asian genomes, and carries information not found in other genomes, reinforcing the idea of ancient Aboriginal isolation.[24]
Genetic data extracted in 2011 by Morten Rasmussen et al., who took a
The Rasmussen study also found evidence that Aboriginal peoples carry some genes associated with the
A 2016 study at the
Carlhoff et al. 2021 analysed a Holocene hunter-gatherer sample ("Leang Panninge") from South Sulawesi, which shares high amounts of genetic drift with Aboriginal Australians and Papuans, which suggests to represent a population which split from the common ancestor of Aboriginal Australians and Papuans. The sample also shows genetic affinity for East Asians and Andamanese people of South Asia. The authors note that this hunter-gatherer sample can be modelled with ~50% Papuan-related ancestry and either with ~50% East Asian or Andamanese Onge ancestry, highlighting the deep split between Leang Panninge and Aboriginal/Papuans.[31][note 3]
Mallick et al. 2016 and Mark Lipson et al. 2017 study found the bifurcation of Eastern Eurasians and Western Eurasians dates back to least 45,000 years ago, with indigenous Australians nested inside the Eastern Eurasian clade.[32][33]
Two genetic studies by Larena et al. 2021 found that
Changes about 4,000 years ago
The
However, a 2016 study in Current Biology by Anders Bergström et al. excluded the Y chromosome as providing evidence for recent gene flow from India into Australia. The study authors sequenced 13 Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes using recent advances in gene sequencing technology, investigating their divergence times from Y chromosomes in other continents, including comparing the haplogroup C chromosomes. They found a divergence time of about 54,100 years between the Sahul C chromosome and its closest relative C5, as well as about 54,300 years between haplogroups K*/M and their closest haplogroups R and Q. The deep divergence time of 50,000-plus years with the South Asian chromosome and "the fact that the Aboriginal Australian Cs share a more recent common ancestor with Papuan Cs" excludes any recent genetic contact.[37]
The 2016 study's authors concluded that, although this does not disprove the presence of any Holocene gene flow or non-genetic influences from South Asia at that time, and the appearance of the dingo does provide strong evidence for external contacts, the evidence overall is consistent with a complete lack of gene flow, and points to indigenous origins for the technological and linguistic changes. They attributed the disparity between their results and previous findings to improvements in technology; none of the other studies had utilised complete Y chromosome sequencing, which has the highest precision. For example, use of a ten Y STRs method has been shown to massively underestimate divergence times. Gene flow across the island-dotted 150-kilometre-wide (93 mi) Torres Strait, is both geographically plausible and demonstrated by the data, although at this point it could not be determined from this study when within the last 10,000 years it may have occurred—newer analytical techniques have the potential to address such questions.[37]
Bergstrom's 2018 doctoral thesis looking at the population of Sahul suggests that other than relatively recent admixture, the populations of the region appear to have been genetically independent from the rest of the world since their divergence about 50,000 years ago. He writes "There is no evidence for South Asian gene flow to Australia .... Despite Sahul being a single connected landmass until [8,000 years ago], different groups across Australia are nearly equally related to Papuans, and vice versa, and the two appear to have separated genetically already [about 30,000 years ago]".[41]
Environmental adaptations
Aboriginal Australians possess inherited abilities to stand a wide range of environmental temperatures in various ways. A study in 1958 comparing cold adaptation in the desert-dwelling
Location and demographics
Aboriginal people have lived for tens of thousands of years on the
Census | Number of persons | Intercensal change (number) | Intercensal change (percentage) |
---|---|---|---|
2006 | 455,028 | 45,025 | 11.0 |
2011 | 548,368 | 93,340 | 20.5 |
2016 | 649,171 | 100,803 | 18.4 |
2021 | 812,728 | 163,557 | 25.2 |
In the 2021 census, people who self-identified on the census form as being of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander origin totalled 812,728 out of a total of 25,422,788 Australians, equating to 3.2% of Australia's population[51] and an increase of 163,557 people, or 25.2%, since the previous census in 2016.[50] Reasons for the increase were broadly as follows:
- Demographic factors – births, deaths and migration[note 4] – accounted for 43.5% of the increase (71,086 people). In turn, 76.2% of that increase was attributed to people aged 0-19 years in 2021, broken down as 52.5% for 0–4 year olds (births since 2016) and 23.7% for 5–19 year olds.[50]
- Non-demographic factors, which are complex to quantify, include persons identifying as Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander in a particular census, and changes in census coverage and response – such as persons completing a census form in 2021 but not in 2016. These factors accounted for 56.5% of the increase in the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander population (92,471 people). The increase was higher than observed between 2011–2016 (39.0%) and 2006–2011 (38.7%).[50]
Languages
Most Aboriginal people speak English,
Groups and sub-groups
Dispersing across the Australian continent over time, the ancient people expanded and differentiated into distinct groups, each with its own language and culture.
Geographically-based names
There are various other names from
- Anangu in northern South Australia, and neighbouring parts of Western Australia and Northern Territory
- Goorie (variant pronunciation and spelling of Koori) in South East Queensland and some parts of northern New South Wales
- Koori (or Koorie) in New South Wales and Victoria (Aboriginal Victorians)
- Murri in Central and Northern Queensland, sometimes referring to all Aboriginal Queenslanders
- Nunga in southern South Australia
- Noongar in southern Western Australia
- Tasmania
- Tiwi on Tiwi Islands off Arnhem Land (NT)
A few examples of sub-groups
Other group names are based on the language group or specific dialect spoken. These also coincide with geographical regions of varying sizes. A few examples are:
- Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt(off Arnhem Land), NT
- Arrernte in central Australia[13]
- Bininj in Western Arnhem Land (NT)[58]
- Gunggari in south-west Queensland[59]
- Muruwari people in New South Wales
- Luritja (Kukatja), an Anangu sub-group based on language
- Ngunnawal in the Australian Capital Territory and surrounding areas of New South Wales
- Pitjantjatjara, an Anangu sub-group based on language
- Wangai in the Western Australian Goldfields
- Warlpiri (Yapa) in western central Northern Territory
- Yamatji in central Western Australia
- Yolnguin eastern Arnhem Land (NT)
Difficulties defining groups
However, these lists are neither exhaustive nor definitive, and there are overlaps. Different approaches have been taken by non-Aboriginal scholars in trying to understand and define Aboriginal culture and societies, some focusing on the micro-level (tribe, clan, etc.), and others on shared languages and cultural practices spread over large regions defined by ecological factors. Anthropologists have encountered many difficulties in trying to define what constitutes an Aboriginal people/community/group/tribe, let alone naming them. Knowledge of pre-colonial Aboriginal cultures and societal groupings is still largely dependent on the observers' interpretations, which were filtered through colonial ways of viewing societies.[60]
Some Aboriginal peoples identify as one of several saltwater, freshwater, rainforest or desert peoples.
Aboriginal identity
The term Aboriginal Australians includes many distinct peoples who have developed across Australia for over 50,000 years.[14][61] These peoples have a broadly shared, though complex, genetic history,[62][40] but it is only in the last two hundred years that they have been defined and started to self-identify as a single group, socio-politically.[63][64] While some preferred the term Aborigine to Aboriginal in the past, as the latter was seen to have more directly discriminatory legal origins,[63] use of the term Aborigine has declined in recent decades, as many consider the term an offensive and racist hangover from Australia's colonial era.[65][66]
The definition of the term Aboriginal has changed over time and place, with the importance of family lineage, self-identification and community acceptance all being of varying importance.[67][68][69]
The term Indigenous Australians refers to Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the term is conventionally only used when both groups are included in the topic being addressed, or by self-identification by a person as Indigenous. (Torres Strait Islanders are ethnically and culturally distinct,[70] despite extensive cultural exchange with some of the Aboriginal groups,[71] and the Torres Strait Islands are mostly part of Queensland but have a separate governmental status.) Some Aboriginal people object to being labelled Indigenous, as an artificial and denialist term.[64]
Culture and beliefs
Australian Indigenous people have beliefs unique to each mob (
Health and economic deprivations
Taken as a whole, Aboriginal Australians, along with Torres Strait Islander people, have a number of health and economic deprivations in comparison with the wider Australian community.[74][75]
Due to the aforementioned disadvantage, Aboriginal Australian communities experience a higher rate of suicide, as compared to non-indigenous communities. These issues stem from a variety of different causes unique to indigenous communities, such as historical trauma,[76] socioeconomic disadvantage, and decreased access to education and health care.[77] Also, this problem largely affects indigenous youth, as many indigenous youth may feel disconnected from their culture.[78]
To combat the increased suicide rate, many researchers have suggested that the inclusion of more cultural aspects into suicide prevention programs would help to combat mental health issues within the community. Past studies have found that many indigenous leaders and community members, do in fact, want more culturally-aware health care programs.[79] Similarly, culturally-relative programs targeting indigenous youth have actively challenged suicide ideation among younger indigenous populations, with many social and emotional wellbeing programs using cultural information to provide coping mechanisms and improving mental health.[80][81]
Viability of remote communities
The
Indigenous communities in remote Australia are often small, isolated towns with basic facilities, on traditionally owned land. These communities have between 20 and 300 inhabitants and are often closed to outsiders for cultural reasons. The long-term viability and resilience of Aboriginal communities in desert areas has been discussed by scholars and policy-makers. A 2007 report by the CSIRO stressed the importance of taking a demand-driven approach to services in desert settlements, and concluded that "if top-down solutions continue to be imposed without appreciating the fundamental drivers of settlement in desert regions, then those solutions will continue to be partial, and ineffective in the long term".[87]
See also
- List of Indigenous Australian politicians
- List of Indigenous Australians in politics and public service
- Aboriginal Centre for the Performing Arts (ACPA)
- Aboriginal cultures of Western Australia
- Aboriginal South Australians
- Australian Aboriginal culture
- Australian Aboriginal kinship
- Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology
- Climate change in Australia
- Indigenous Australian art
- Indigenous Australian music
- First Nations Media Australia
- Indigenous land rights in Australia
- List of Aboriginal missions in New South Wales
- List of Indigenous Australian firsts
- List of massacres of Indigenous Australians
- Lists of Indigenous Australians
- National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Award
- Native title in Australia
- Stolen Generations
- Supply Nation
Notes
- ^ "The re-excavation of Karnatukul (Serpent’s Glen) has provided evidence for the human occupation of the Australian Western Desert to before 47,830 cal. BP (modelled median age). This new sequence is 20,000 years older than the previous known age for occupation at this site."
- ^ Genetics and material culture support repeated expansions into Paleolithic Eurasia from a population hub out of Africa, Vallini et al. 2022 (April 4, 2022): "Taken together with a lower bound of the final settlement of Sahul at 37 ka (the date of the deepest population splits estimated by Malaspinas et al. 2016), it is reasonable to describe Papuans as either an almost even mixture between East Asians and a lineage basal to West and East Asians occurred sometimes between 45 and 38 ka, or as a sister lineage of East Asians with or without a minor basal OoA or xOoA contribution. We here chose to parsimoniously describe Papuans as a simple sister group of Tianyuan, cautioning that this may be just one out of six equifinal possibilities."
- qpGraphanalysis confirmed this branching pattern, with the Leang Panninge individual branching off from the Near Oceanian clade after the Denisovan gene flow, although with the most supported topology indicating around 50% of a basal East Asian component contributing to the Leang Panninge genome (fig. 3c, supplementary figs. 7–11).
- ^ Population change due to overseas migration continued to account for less than 2 per cent of the Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander population.
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This article incorporates text by Anders Bergström et al. available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
Further reading
- "Start exploring Australian Aboriginal culture". Creative Spirits. 24 December 2018.
- "Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies". AIATSIS.
- "Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies". AIATSIS.
- "Aboriginal Art of Australia: Understanding its History". ARTARK. Retrieved 28 August 2023.
External links
- Media related to Aboriginal Australians at Wikimedia Commons