Abraham
Abraham | |
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אַבְרָהָם | |
Spouse(s) | Sarah Hagar (concubine from Egypt) Keturah (also concubine) |
Children | |
Parents | |
Relatives | Closest to furthest:
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Abraham[a] (originally Abram)[b] is the common Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.[7] In Judaism, he is the founding father of the special relationship between the Jews and God; in Christianity, he is the spiritual progenitor of all believers, whether Jewish or non-Jewish;[c][8] and in Islam, he is a link in the chain of Islamic prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad.[4]
The story of the life of Abraham as told in the narrative of the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible revolves around the themes of posterity and land. He is said to have been called by God to leave the house of his father Terah and settle in the land of Canaan, which God now promises to Abraham and his progeny. This promise is subsequently inherited by Isaac, Abraham's son, by his wife Sarah, while Isaac's half-brother Ishmael is also promised that he will be the founder of a great nation. Abraham purchases a tomb (the Cave of the Patriarchs) at Hebron to be Sarah's grave, thus establishing his right to the land; and, in the second generation, his heir Isaac is married to a woman from his own kin to earn his parents' approval. Abraham later marries Keturah and has six more sons; but, on his death, when he is buried beside Sarah, it is Isaac who receives "all Abraham's goods" while the other sons receive only "gifts".[9]
Most scholars view the
The Abraham cycle in the Bible
Structure and narrative programs
The Abraham cycle is not structured by a unified plot centered on a conflict and its resolution or a problem and its solution.[13] The episodes are often only loosely linked, and the sequence is not always logical, but it is unified by the presence of Abraham himself, as either actor or witness, and by the themes of posterity and land.[14] These themes form "narrative programs" set out in Genesis 11:27–31 concerning the sterility of Sarah and 12:1–3 in which Abraham is ordered to leave the land of his birth for the land YHWH will show him.[14]
Origins and calling
God had told Abram to leave his country and kindred and go to a land that he would show him, and promised to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless them that bless him, and curse them who may curse him. Abram was 75 years old when he left Haran with his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the substance and souls that they had acquired, and traveled to Shechem in Canaan.[17] Then he pitched his tent in the east of Bethel, and built an altar which was between Bethel and Ai.
Sarai
There was a severe famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households traveled to Egypt. On the way Abram told Sarai to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. When they entered Egypt, the Pharaoh's officials praised Sarai's beauty to Pharaoh, and they took her into the palace and gave Abram goods in exchange. God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with plagues, which led Pharaoh to try to find out what was wrong.[18] Upon discovering that Sarai was a married woman, Pharaoh demanded that Abram and Sarai leave.[19]
Abram and Lot separate
When they lived for a while in the Negev after being banished from Egypt and came back to the Bethel and Ai area, Abram's and Lot's sizable herds occupied the same pastures. This became a problem for the herdsmen, who were assigned to each family's cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand or on the right hand, that there be no conflict amongst brethren. Lot decided to go eastward to the plain of Jordan, where the land was well watered everywhere as far as Zoara, and he dwelled in the cities of the plain toward Sodom.[20] Abram went south to Hebron and settled in the plain of Mamre, where he built another altar to worship God.[21]
Chedorlaomer
During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities, Sodom and Gomorrah, against Elam, Abram's nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect the spoils of war, after having just defeated the king of Sodom's armies.[22] Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target.[23]
One person who escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abram's force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the
Upon Abram's return, Sodom's king came out to meet with him in the
Covenant of the pieces
The voice of the Lord came to Abram in a vision and repeated the promise of the land and descendants as numerous as the stars. Abram and God made a covenant ceremony, and God told of the future bondage of Israel in Egypt. God described to Abram the land that his offspring would claim: the land of the
Hagar
Abram and Sarai tried to make sense of how he would become a progenitor of nations, because after 10 years of living in Canaan, no child had been born. Sarai then offered her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to Abram with the intention that she would bear him a son.[27]
After Hagar found she was pregnant, she began to despise her mistress, Sarai. Sarai responded by mistreating Hagar, and Hagar fled into the wilderness. An angel spoke with Hagar at the fountain on the way to Shur. He instructed her to return to Abram's camp and that her son would be "a wild ass of a man; his hand shall be against every man, and every man's hand against him; and he shall dwell in the face of all his brethren." She was told to call her son Ishmael. Hagar then called God who spoke to her "El-roi", ("Thou God seest me:" KJV). From that day onward, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi, ("The well of him that liveth and seeth me." KJV margin), located between Kadesh and Bered. She then did as she was instructed by returning to her mistress in order to have her child. Abram was 86 years of age when Ishmael was born.[28]
Sarah
Thirteen years later, when Abram was 99 years of age, God declared Abram's new name: "Abraham" – "a father of many nations".
God declared Sarai's new name: "Sarah", blessed her, and told Abraham, "I will give thee a son also of her".[31] Abraham laughed, and "said in his heart, 'Shall a child be born unto him that is a hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear [a child]?'"[32] Immediately after Abraham's encounter with God, he had his entire household of men, including himself (age 99) and Ishmael (age 13), circumcised.[33]
Three visitors
Not long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by the
One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the prospect of having a child at their ages. The visitor inquired of Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child at her age, as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing.[35]
Abraham's plea
After eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the 'cities of the plain' to discuss the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah for their detestable sins that were so great, it moved God to action. Because Abraham's nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors left for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to God and pleaded decrementally with Him (from fifty persons to less) that "if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?" For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city.[36]
When the two visitors arrived in Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square. However, Abraham's nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two "men" stay at his house for the night. A rally of men stood outside of Lot's home and demanded that Lot bring out his guests so that they may "know" (v. 5) them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters who had not "known" (v. 8) man to the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break down Lot's door to get to his male guests,[37] thus confirming the wickedness of the city and portending their imminent destruction.[38]
Early the next morning, Abraham went to the place where he stood before God. He "looked out toward Sodom and Gomorrah" and saw what became of the cities of the plain, where not even "ten righteous" (v. 18:32) had been found, as "the smoke of the land went up as the smoke of a furnace."[39]
Abimelech
Abraham settled between
Early next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that he thought there was no fear of God in that place, and that they might kill him for his wife. Then Abraham defended what he had said as not being a lie at all: "And yet indeed she is my sister; she is the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife."[41] Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, and gave him gifts of sheep, oxen, and servants; and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelech's lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed for Abimelech and his household, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah.[42]
After living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech and Phicol, the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing of Abraham's Well. Abimelech claimed ignorance of the incident. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well: Beersheba. After Abimelech and Phicol headed back to Philistia, Abraham planted a tamarisk grove in Beersheba and called upon "the name of the LORD, the everlasting God."[43]
Isaac
As had been prophesied in Mamre the previous year,[44] Sarah became pregnant and bore a son to Abraham, on the first anniversary of the covenant of circumcision. Abraham was "an hundred years old", when his son whom he named Isaac was born; and he circumcised him when he was eight days old.[45] For Sarah, the thought of giving birth and nursing a child, at such an old age, also brought her much laughter, as she declared, "God hath made me to laugh, so that all who hear will laugh with me."[46] Isaac continued to grow and on the day he was weaned, Abraham held a great feast to honor the occasion. During the celebration, however, Sarah found Ishmael mocking; an observation that would begin to clarify the birthright of Isaac.[47]
Ishmael
Ishmael was fourteen years old when Abraham's son Isaac was born to Sarah. When she found Ishmael teasing Isaac, Sarah told Abraham to send both Ishmael and Hagar away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. God told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. God reassured Abraham that "in Isaac shall seed be called to thee."[48] He also said Ishmael would make a nation, "because he is thy seed".[49]
Early the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered in the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst into tears. After God heard the boy's voice, an angel of the Lord confirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation, and will be "living on his sword". A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilled archer living in the wilderness of Paran. Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her home country, the land of Egypt.[50]
Binding of Isaac
At some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of Moriah. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God told him of. He then commanded the servants to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone into the mount. Isaac carried the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac asked his father where the animal for the burnt offering was, to which Abraham replied "God will provide himself a lamb for a burnt offering". Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was interrupted by the angel of the Lord, and he saw behind him a "ram caught in a thicket by his horns", which he sacrificed instead of his son. The place was later named as Jehovah-jireh. For his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham went to Beersheba.[51]
Later years
Sarah died, and Abraham buried her in the
Historicity and origins of the narrative
Historicity
In the early and middle 20th century, leading archaeologists such as William F. Albright and G. Ernest Wright and biblical scholars such as Albrecht Alt and John Bright believed that the patriarchs and matriarchs were either real individuals or believable composites of people who lived in the "patriarchal age", the 2nd millennium BCE.[61] But, in the 1970s, new arguments concerning Israel's past and the biblical texts challenged these views; these arguments can be found in Thomas L. Thompson's The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives (1974),[62] and John Van Seters' Abraham in History and Tradition (1975).[63] Thompson, a literary scholar, based his argument on archaeology and ancient texts. His thesis centered on the lack of compelling evidence that the patriarchs lived in the 2nd millennium BCE, and noted how certain biblical texts reflected first millennium conditions and concerns. Van Seters examined the patriarchal stories and argued that their names, social milieu, and messages strongly suggested that they were Iron Age creations.[64] Van Seters' and Thompson's works were a paradigm shift in biblical scholarship and archaeology, which gradually led scholars to no longer consider the patriarchal narratives as historical.[65] Some conservative scholars attempted to defend the Patriarchal narratives in the following years, but this has not found acceptance among scholars.[66][67] By the beginning of the 21st century, archaeologists had stopped trying to recover any context that would make Abraham, Isaac or Jacob credible historical figures.[68]
Origins of the narrative
Abraham's story, like those of the other patriarchs, most likely had a substantial oral prehistory
The completion of the Torah and its elevation to the centre of post-Exilic Judaism was as much or more about combining older texts as writing new ones – the final Pentateuch was based on existing traditions.[76] In the Book of Ezekiel,[77] written during the Exile (i.e., in the first half of the 6th century BCE), Ezekiel, an exile in Babylon, tells how those who remained in Judah are claiming ownership of the land based on inheritance from Abraham; but the prophet tells them they have no claim because they do not observe Torah.[78] The Book of Isaiah[79] similarly testifies of tension between the people of Judah and the returning post-Exilic Jews (the "gôlâ"), stating that God is the father of Israel and that Israel's history begins with the Exodus and not with Abraham.[80] The conclusion to be inferred from this and similar evidence (e.g., Ezra–Nehemiah), is that the figure of Abraham must have been preeminent among the great landowners of Judah at the time of the Exile and after, serving to support their claims to the land in opposition to those of the returning exiles.[80]
Palestine origin hypothesis
The earliest possible reference to Abraham may be the name of a town in the
Religious traditions
Part of a series on |
Judaism |
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Abraham is given a high position of respect in three major world faiths,
Judaism
In Jewish tradition, Abraham is called Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו), "our father Abraham," signifying that he is both the biological progenitor of the Jews and the father of Judaism, the first Jew.
Hanan bar Rava taught in Abba Arikha's name that Abraham's mother was named ʾĂmatlaʾy bat Karnebo.[84][d] Hiyya bar Abba taught that Abraham worked in Teraḥ's idol shop in his youth.[87]
In
Along with Isaac and Jacob, he is the one whose name would appear united with God, as God in Judaism was called Elohei Abraham, Elohei Yitzchaq ve Elohei Ya'aqob ("God of Abraham, God of Isaac, and God of Jacob") and never the God of anyone else.[93] He was also mentioned as the father of thirty nations.[94]
Abraham is generally credited as the author of the Sefer Yetzirah, one of the earliest extant books on Jewish mysticism.[95]
According to Pirkei Avot, Abraham underwent ten tests at God's command.[96] The Binding of Isaac is specified in the Bible as a test;[97] the other nine are not specified, but later rabbinical sources give various enumerations.[citation needed]
Christianity
Abraham | |
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Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism[100] |
In
Throughout history, church leaders, following Paul, have emphasized Abraham as the spiritual father of all Christians.[103] Augustine of Hippo declared that Christians are "children (or "seed") of Abraham by faith", Ambrose stated that "by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham", and Martin Luther recalled Abraham as "a paradigm of the man of faith."[e]
The
Some Christian theologians equate the "three visitors" with the Holy Trinity, seeing in their apparition a theophany experienced by Abraham[106] (see also the articles on the Constantinian basilica at Mamre and the church at the so-called "Oak of Mamre").
Arie C. Leider considers Abraham's altars in Canaan in Genesis 12:7–8 to be a "declaration of YHWH's sovereignty and ownership of the land", even before Joshua distributed the land to the Israelite tribes. [107]
Islam
Islam regards Ibrahim (Abraham) as a link in the chain of prophets that begins with Adam and culminates in Muhammad via Ismail (Ishmael).[4] Ibrāhīm is mentioned in 35
Besides
Druze
The Druze regard Abraham as the third spokesman (natiq) after Adam and Noah, who helped transmit the foundational teachings of monotheism (tawhid) intended for the larger audience.[6] He is also among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history according to the Druze faith.[98][99]
Mandaeism
In
Baháʼí Faith
In the Baháʼí texts, like the Islamic texts, Abraham is often referred to as "the Friend of God".[126] ‘Abdu’l-Bahá described Abraham as the founder of monotheism.[127]
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also suggested the "holy manifestations who have been the sources or founders of the various religious systems" were united and agreed in purpose and teaching, and the Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, the Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh are one in "spirit and reality".[128]
In the arts
Painting and sculpture
Paintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: the sacrifice of Isaac; meeting Melchizedek; entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others.[f] Additionally, Martin O'Kane, a professor of Biblical Studies, writes that the parable of Lazarus resting in the "Bosom of Abraham", as described in the Gospel of Luke, became an iconic image in Christian works.[129] According to O'Kane, artists often chose to divert from the common literary portrayal of Lazarus sitting next to Abraham at a banquet in Heaven and instead focus on the "somewhat incongruous notion of Abraham, the most venerated of patriarchs, holding a naked and vulnerable child in his bosom".[129] Several artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham, including Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), Caravaggio (1573–1610), Donatello, Raphael, Philip van Dyck (Dutch painter, 1680–1753), and Claude Lorrain (French painter, 1600–1682). Rembrandt (Dutch, 1606–1669) created at least seven works on Abraham, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) did several, Marc Chagall did at least five on Abraham, Gustave Doré (French illustrator, 1832–1883) did six, and James Tissot (French painter and illustrator, 1836–1902) did over twenty works on the subject.[f]
The
George Segal created figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models in his 1987 work Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. The human condition was central to his concerns, and Segal used the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculpture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000.[131]
Christian iconography
Abraham can sometimes be identified by the context of the image – the meeting with Melchizedek, the three visitors, or the sacrifice of Isaac. In solo portraits a sword or knife may be used as his accessory, as in this statue by Giovanni Maria Morlaiter or this painting by Lorenzo Monaco. The Bible describes him as an “older” person, and beardless.[132]
As early as the beginning of the 3rd century, Christian art followed Christian typology in making the sacrifice of Isaac a foreshadowing of Christ's sacrifice on the cross, and its memorial in the sacrifice of the Mass. See for example this 11th-century Christian altar engraved with Abraham's and other sacrifices taken to prefigure that of Christ in the Eucharist.[133]
Some early Christian writers interpreted the three visitors as the
Literature
Fear and Trembling (original Danish title: Frygt og Bæven) is an influential philosophical work by Søren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym Johannes de silentio (John the Silent). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son.[135] W. G. Hardy's novel Father Abraham (1935) tells the fictionalized life story of Abraham.[136] In her short story collection Sarah and After, Lynne Reid Banks tells the story of Abraham and Sarah, with an emphasis on Sarah's view of events.[137]
Music
In 1681, Marc-Antoine Charpentier released a Dramatic motet (Oratorio), Sacrificim Abrahae H.402 – 402 a – 402 b, for soloists, chorus, doubling instruments and continuo. Sébastien de Brossard composed a cantata Abraham ou le sacrifice d'Isaac. between 1703 and 1708.[138]
In 1994, Steve Reich released an opera named The Cave. The title refers to the Cave of the Patriarchs. The narrative of the opera is based on the story of Abraham, and his immediate family, as it is recounted in religious texts, and understood by individuals from different cultures and religious traditions.[139]
Bob Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited"[140] is the title track for his 1965 album Highway 61 Revisited. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song as number 364 in their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.[141] The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1, God tells Abraham to "kill me a son". God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father.[142]
See also
Notes
- Arabic: إبراهيم, Ibrāhīm
- ^ Hebrew: אַבְרָם, Modern: ʾAvram, Tiberian: ʾAḇrām
- ^ Jeffrey 1992, p. 10 writes "In the NT Abraham is recognized as the father of Israel and of the Levitical priesthood (Heb. 7), as the "legal" forebear of Jesus (i.e. ancestor of Joseph according to Matt. 1), and spiritual progenitor of all Christians (Rom. 4; Gal. 3:16, 29; cf. also the Visio Pauli)"
- Michaux stone. It referred to at least two separate cities in antiquity.[85] Rabbinic tradition connects Karnebo to the Biblical Hebrew Kar (כר lamb), translating it pure lambs.[86]
- ^ Jeffrey 1992, p. 10 states "St. Augustine, following Paul, regards all Christians as children (or "seed") of Abraham by faith, although "born of strangers" (e.g. In Joan. Ev. 108). St. Ambrose likewise says that by means of their faith Christians possess the promises made to Abraham. Abraham's initial departure from his homeland is understood by St. Caesarius of Arles as a type of Christian leaving the world of carnal habits to follow Christ. Later commentators as diverse as Luther and Kierkegaard recall Abraham as a paradigm of the man of faith.
- ^ a b For a very thorough online collection of links to artwork about Abraham see: "Artwork Depicting Scenes from Abraham's Life". Retrieved 25 March 2011.
References
- ^ a b Levenson 2012, p. 3.
- ^ Mendes-Flohr 2005.
- ^ Levenson 2012, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d Levenson 2012, p. 8.
- ^ a b Smith 2000, p. 22, 231.
- ^ a b Swayd 2009, p. 3.
- ^ McCarter 2000, p. 8.
- ^ a b c Wright 2010, p. 72.
- ^ Ska 2009, pp. 26–31.
- ^ McNutt 1999, pp. 41–42.
- ^ Dever 2001, p. 98.
- ^ Ska 2006, pp. 227–228, 260.
- ^ Ska 2009, p. 28.
- ^ a b Ska 2009, pp. 28–29.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-2400-4, 2000, p. 551 and Genesis 20:12
- JSTOR 3261014– via JSTOR.
- ^ Genesis 12:4–6
- ^ Genesis 12:14–17
- ^ Genesis 12:18–20
- ISBN 978-0-8028-1954-3.
- ISBN 978-1-85075-935-5– via Google Books.
- ^ Genesis 14:8–12
- ^ Genesis 13:12
- ^ Genesis 14:13–16
- ^ Noth, Martin. A History of Pentateuchal Traditions (Englewood Cliffs 1972) p. 28
- JSTOR 26301751.
- ^ "Jewish Encyclopedia, Hagar". Jewishencyclopedia.com.
- ^ Genesis 16:4–16
- ^ Genesis 17:5
- ^ Genesis 17:10–14
- ^ Genesis 17:15–16
- ^ Genesis 17:17
- ^ Genesis 17:22–27
- ^ Genesis 18:1–8
- ^ Genesis 18:15
- ^ Genesis 18:17–33
- ^ Genesis 19:1–9
- ^ Genesis 19:12–13
- ^ Genesis 19:27–29
- ^ Genesis 20:1–7
- ^ Genesis 20:12
- ^ Genesis 20:8–18
- ^ Genesis 21:22–34
- ^ Genesis 17:21
- ^ Genesis 21:1–5
- ^ Genesis 21:6–7
- ^ Genesis 21:8–13
- ^ Genesis 21:12
- ^ Genesis 21:9–13
- ^ Genesis 21:14–21
- ^ Genesis 22:1–19
- ^ Genesis 23:1–20
- ^ Genesis 25:1–6
- ^ Genesis 25:12–18
- ^ Genesis 36:1–43
- ^ Genesis 36:12–16
- ^ Genesis 36:9–16
- ^ Genesis 25:1–5
- ^ Genesis 19:35–38
- ^ Genesis 25:7–10, 1 Chronicles 1:32
- ISBN 978-0-664-22068-6.
- ISBN 9783110040968.
- ISBN 978-1-62654-910-4.
- ^ Moore & Kelle 2011, pp. 18–19.
- ISBN 978-0-664-25392-9.
- ^ Dever 2001, p. 98: "There are a few sporadic attempts by conservative scholars to "save" the patriarchal narratives as history, such as Kenneth Kitchen [...] By and large, however, the minimalist view of Thompson's pioneering work, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives, prevails."
- ISBN 978-0-19-173494-6.
The fact is that we are all minimalists – at least, when it comes to the patriarchal period and the settlement. When I began my PhD studies more than three decades ago in the USA, the 'substantial historicity' of the patriarchs was widely accepted as was the unified conquest of the land. These days it is quite difficult to find anyone who takes this view.
- ^ Dever 2001, p. 98 and fn.2.
- ^ Pitard 2001, p. 27.
- ^ Ezekiel 33:24
- ^ Isaiah 63:16
- ^ Thompson 2016, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Ska 2009, p. 260.
- ^ Enns 2012, p. 26.
- ^ a b Ska 2006, pp. 217, 227–28.
- ^ Carr & Conway 2010, p. 193.
- ^ 33:24
- ^ Ska 2009, p. 43.
- ^ 63:16
- ^ a b Ska 2009, p. 44.
- ^ McCarter 2000, p. 9.
- ^ The stele reads: «The Apiru of Mount Yarumta, together with the Tayaru, attack the Raham tribe». J. B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament , p. 255. Princeton, 1955.
- ^ .
- ^ "Bava Batra 91a". www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 8 March 2021.
- ^ Yamada, Shigeo. "Karus on the Frontiers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Orient 40 (2005)"
- ^ "Rashbam on Bava Batra 91a:14:2". http://www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 2021-03-08.
- ^ "Bereishit Rabbah 38". www.sefaria.org. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
- ^ Ginzberg 1909, Vol I: The Wicked Generations.
- ^ Ginzberg 1909, Vol. I: In the Fiery Furnace.
- ^ Jasher 1840, p. 22, Ch9, vv 5–6.
- ^ Ginzberg 1909.
- ^ Ginzberg 1909, Vol. I: The Covenant with Abimelech.
- ^ Ginzberg 1909, Vol. I: Joy and Sorrow in the House of Jacob.
- ^ Ginzberg 1909, Vol. I: The Birth of Esau and Jacob.
- ^ Sefer Yetzirah Hashalem (with Rabbi Saadia Gaon's Commentary), Yosef Qafih (editor), Jerusalem 1972, p. 46 (Hebrew / Judeo-Arabic)
- ^ Pirkei Avot 5:3 – עֲשָׂרָה נִסְיוֹנוֹת נִתְנַסָּה אַבְרָהָם אָבִינוּ עָלָיו הַשָּׁלוֹם וְעָמַד בְּכֻלָּם, לְהוֹדִיעַ כַּמָּה חִבָּתוֹ שֶׁל אַבְרָהָם אָבִינוּ עָלָיו הַשָּׁלוֹם
- ^ Genesis 22:1
- ^ ISBN 978-1465546623.
- ^ ISBN 9781903900369.
- ^ Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
- ^ a b Waters, Reid & Muether 2020.
- ^ Firestone, Reuven. "Abraham." Archived 9 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopedia of World History.
- ^ Jeffrey 1992, p. 10.
- ^ Caxton, William. "Abraham". The Golden Legend. Internet Medieval Source Book. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
- ^ Holweck 1924.
- (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
- – via SciELO.
- ^ Peters 2003, p. 9.
- ^ Levenson 2012, p. 200.
- ^ Lings 2004.
- ^ Quran 38:45–47
- ^ "Surah 38 Sad (The letter Saad). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy". en.quranacademy.org.
- ^ Maulana 2006, p. 104.
- Q22:78 & Q60:4–6
- ^ "Surah 22 Al-Hajj (The Pilgrimage). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy". en.quranacademy.org.
- ^ "Surah 60 Al-Mumtahanah (She that is to be examined). Read and listen Quran · Quran Academy". en.quranacademy.org.
- ISBN 978-0958034630.
- ^ Lidzbarski, Mark (1925). Ginza: Der Schatz oder Das große Buch der Mandäer. Göttingen: Vandenhoek & Ruprecht.
- ^ Drower, Ethel Stefana (1953). The Haran Gawaita and the Baptism of Hibil-Ziwa. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.
- ^ Drower, Ethel Stefana (1937). The Mandaeans of Iraq and Iran. Oxford At The Clarendon Press.
- ^ Smith, Andrew Phillip (2016). John the Baptist and the Last Gnostics: the Secret History of the Mandaeans. Watkins.
- ^ ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 2014, p. 10.
- ^ Baháʼu'lláh 1976, p. 54.
- ^ a b c d ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 2014, p. 4.
- ^ Baháʼu'lláh 1976, p. 23.
- ^ Smith 2000, p. 22.
- ^ ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 1978, p. 22.
- ^ ʻAbdu'l-Bahá 1912, p. 118.
- ^ a b Exum 2007, p. 135.
- ^ Rutgers 1993.
- ^ Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. George Segal. Miami Art Museum. Collections: Recent Acquisitions.. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
- ^ "What did abraham look like in the bible? - The holy script". 24 March 2023.
- Georgia Regents University. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
- ^ Boguslawski, Alexander. "The Holy Trinity". Rollins.edu. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
- ^ Kierkegaard 1980, pp. 155–156.
- ^ Allison, W. T. (26 January 1935). "Abraham's Quest For God". Winnipeg Tribune. Winnipeg, Manitoba. p. 39.
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- ^ "Cantata: Abraham ou le sacrifice d'Isaac Sébastien de Brossard. Sheet music". en.opera-scores.com.
- ^ Reich, Steve (1990). "The Cave - Steve Reich Composer". stevereich.com.
- ^ "Highway 61 Revisited | The Official Bob Dylan Site". www.bobdylan.com.
- ^ "Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Archived from the original on 13 September 2008. Retrieved 8 August 2008.
- ^ "From Odessa to Duluth: The journey of Bob Dylan's grandparents". Duluth News Tribune. 28 March 2022.
Bibliography
- ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (1978). Barney, Research Department of the Universal House of Justice (ed.). Selections from the Writings of ‘Abdu’l‑Bahá. Translated by Bahá’í World Centre and by Gail, Marzieh. Baháʼí World Centre.
- ISBN 978-0-87743-374-3. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (1912). MacNutt, Howard (ed.). The Promulgation of Universal Peace.
- ISBN 0-87743-187-6.
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- Ginzberg, Louis (1909). The Legends of the Jews (PDF). Translated by Henrietta Szold. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- Holweck, Frederick George (1924). A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. B. Herder Book Co.
- The Book of Jasher. New York: Noah and Gould. 1840.
- ISBN 978-0-8028-3634-2.
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- Maulana, Mohammad (2006). Encyclopaedia of Quranic Studies (Set of 26 Vols.). Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-261-2771-9.
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- McNutt, Paula M. (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22265-9.
- ISBN 978-0787666118 – via Encyclopedia.com.
- Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel's Past. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans Pub. Company. OCLC 693560718.
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- Pitard, Wayne T. (2001). "Before Israel". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2.
- Rutgers, Leonard Victor (1993). "The Iconography of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (review)". Journal of Early Christian Studies. 1 (1): 94–96. S2CID 170301601.
- Ska, Jean Louis (2006). Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-122-1.
- Ska, Jean Louis (2009). The Exegesis of the Pentateuch: Exegetical Studies and Basic Questions. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-149905-0.
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- Waters, Guy P.; Reid, J. Nicholas; Muether, John R. (2020). Covenant Theology: Biblical, Theological, and Historical Perspectives. Crossway. ISBN 978-1-4335-6006-4.
Paul also shows us how the Abrahamic covenant relates to the covenantal administrations that precede and follow it. ... There is, then, covenantal continuity between the inaugural administration of God's one gracious covenant in the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:15) and the subsequent administration of that covenant to Abraham and his family (Gen. 12; 15; 17). The Abrahamic administration serves to reveal more of the person and work of Christ and, in this way, continue to administer Christ to human beings through faith."
- ISBN 978-0-310-32303-7.
External links
- Abraham smashes the idols (accessed 24 March 2011).
- "Journey and Life of the Patriarch Abraham", a map dating back to 1590.
- Kitáb-i-Íqán