Abrahamic religions
The term Abrahamic religion groups three of the major religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) together due to their historical coexistence and competition;[1][2] it refers to Abraham, a figure mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, the Christian Bible, and the Quran, and is used to show similarities between these religions and put them in contrast to Indian religions, Iranian religions, and the East Asian religions (though other religions and belief systems may refer to Abraham as well).[3][4] Furthermore, some religions categorized as "Abrahamic" also share elements from other categories, such as Indian religions, or for example, Islam with Eastern religions.[5]
Abrahamic religions make up the largest major division in the study of comparative religion.[6] By total number of adherents, Christianity and Islam comprise the largest and second-largest religious movements in the world, respectively.[7][page needed] Judaism is the smallest of the three major Abrahamic religions. Samaritanism is the smallest Abrahamic religion. Baháʼí Faith, Bábism, and Druzism are offshoots of Abrahamic religions.[8]
Usage
The term Abrahamic religions (and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.[9] It features prominently in interfaith dialogue and political discourse, but also has entered Academic discourse.[10][11] However, the term has also been criticized to be uncritically adapted.[10]
Although historically the term Abrahamic religions was limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,[12] restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.[13][14] The late 19th century Baháʼí Faith has been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields,[15][16] since it is a monotheistic religion, which recognizes Abraham.[17][18]
Theological discourse
The figure Abraham is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and the chance of a future reconciliation of these three faiths.[19][20] Commonalities may include, creation, revelation, and redemption, although such shared concepts may vary significantly within each Abrahamic religion respectively.[20] Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham.[19]
The Catholic scholar of Islam Louis Massignon stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.[21] The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm, 'religion of Ibrahim', Arabic form of Abraham's name.[22]
According to Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised". Islam likewise conceived itself as the religion of Abraham.[23] The Bahá'í Faith states in its scripture that Bahá'ullah descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons.[24][25][26]
Criticism
The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam by the terms "Abrahamic religions" or "Abrahamic traditions" has been challenged.[27] Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.[28] Alan L. Berger, professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University, wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him".[29]Aaron W. Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism".[30]
The common Christian beliefs of
Historical development
Judaism
Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the Ishmaelites are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula.[32]
In its early stages, the Israelite religion was derived from the
While the Book of Genesis speaks of multiple gods (ʾĔlōhīm), comparable to the Enūma Eliš speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the Babylonian captivity, Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh, reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity.[34] The monolatrist nature of Yahwism was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.[35][36][37]
With the
Christianity
In the 1st century AD, under the
While Christians fashioned their religion around Jesus of Nazareth, the siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the Second Temple and associated rituals.[44] At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage.[45] Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories of creation and redemption starting with Abraham in the Book of Genesis.[46] The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo, which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology.[47] By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate the deity of Jesus.[48]
After several periods of alternating
Islam
The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and the Tanakh.[50] Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Tanakh and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of the Tanakh and Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment.[50]
In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death.[24] Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian Henotheism.[51]
The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God. Islam, like Christianity, is a universal religion (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid or "strict monotheism".[52] The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says kun fa-yakūnu.[53] The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity here.[53]
Common aspects
This section possibly contains synthesis of material which does not verifiably mention or relate to the main topic. (February 2024) |
All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that
In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seeks
Monotheism
All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although one who is known by different names.
Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus (
- Christians view Jesus as the saviour and regard him as God incarnate.
- Muslims see Isa as a Prophet of Islam[61][page needed] and Messiah. Isa (Jesus) is also believed by Muslims to return to Earth before the doomsday to defeat the Dajjal (the Anti-Christ) and restore peace for a period of time.[citation needed]
However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and as shituf in Judaism), is typically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism.[citation needed]
Importance of Jerusalem
Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE,
Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after
Significance of Abraham
Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.[15]
For Jews, Abraham is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."[73] With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".[74] It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.[75]
Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or
Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus.[neutrality is disputed] They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"[83] (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"[84] (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in Paul's theology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.[85][a] However, with regards to Rom. 4:20[86] and Gal. 4:9,[87] in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God"[88] rather than "children of Abraham".[89]
For Muslims, Abraham is a
Differences
This section possibly contains synthesis of material which does not verifiably mention or relate to the main topic. (February 2024) |
God
The
The
In
.Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381.[97][98] Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians, hold it as a core tenet of their faith.[99][100] Nontrinitarian denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.[101]
The theology of the
In
A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in
Salvation
Christianity teaches
Since humans obeyed the Devil by comitting sin, according to Christian teachings of salvation, the Devil has authority over humans.[116] Only the crucifixion of Jesus could save humans from the grasps of the Devil. Accordingly, Christianity rejects that actions and repentance alone could achieve salvation. The notion that only through the sacrifice of Jesus, salvation could be achieved is emphasized in the Bible:
"I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6).[117]
Salvation is thus, a grace bestowed by God, not an individual's work, and passages from the Bible are used in Christian theology to underline that message:
"surely God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid"[117](Isaiah 12:2)
Christianity understands acceptance of Jesus' sacrifice as a transformation of the individual, by that the person sheds off its former sinful nature and dissolves in the will of Jesus, an idea attributed to Paul in the Bible:
"If anyone is in Christ, he is a new cre-ation: the old has gone; the new has come."[117]
In Christianity, repentance is an external process; attained through faith.
Islam does neither acknowledge nor aspire salvation from evil in the world.[118] Instead, Islam teaches individual salvation from earthly and otherworldly sufferings through repentance (tawbah).[117]
There is no concept of original sin in Islam. The Fall of Adam is interpreted as an allegory for mankind's behavior; they sin, become aware of their sin, then repent.[119] Accordingly, Islam neither acknowledges nor aspires salvation from evil in the world.[118] Salvation is achieved by purifying one's soul, to go to paradise after death.[117] The importance of repentance is highlighted throughout Islamic scripture:
"Indeed, Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2:22)
Sometimes compared to the concept of original sin, the devils (shayāṭīn) are said to "touch" humans at the moment of birth and a devil is said to move through humans like blood in the veins, causing an urge to sin.[120] Thus, humans are expected to have a sinful nature, but it could be overcome through repentance:[117]
"Every son of Adam commits sin and the best for those who commit sin are those who repent." (Sunan Ibn Ma-jah)[117]
The devils as conceptualized in the New Testament are in odds with the Islamic idea of monotheism, thus closer to the Jewish understanding of Satan; not as an accuser, but a tempter.[121] According to the Islamic monotheism, the devils are dependent on God.[121] According to Islamic teachings, evil is not traced back to devils, but to God, precisely to God's will:
"For indeed, Allāh sends astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills." (Surah 35:8).[122][121]
The origin of good and evil do not depend on a person's will, the devils, or universal laws, but solely on God's judgement.[121]
Circumcision
Judaism and
Today, many
Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in
Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.[146]
Circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze, the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,[147] and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.[148][149] Some Druses do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[150]
Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.[151]
Proselytism
Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit
Christianity encourages
Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."[155] The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism.[156]
Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.
Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah.
In
Demographics
Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.3 billion adherents, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.[158] Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.[158][159] It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, which constitute about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews.[158] The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,[160][161] and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century usually at least twice the rate of population growth.[162] The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two millions adherents.[163][164]
Religion | Adherents |
---|---|
Baháʼí | ~8 million[160][161] |
Druze | 1–2 million[163][164] |
Rastafari | 700,000-1 million[36] |
Mandaeism | 60,000–100,000[165][166] |
Azali Bábism
|
~1,000–2,000[29][167] |
Samaritanism | ~840[168] |
See also
- Abraham's family tree
- Abrahamic Family House, a complex in Abu Dhabi built in the spirit of Abrahamic unity
- Abrahamites
- Ancient Semitic religion
- Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement
- Christianity and Islam
- Christianity and Judaism
- Christianity and other religions
- Gnosticism
- Interfaith dialogue
- Islamic–Jewish relations
- Islam and other religions
- Jewish views on religious pluralism
- Judeo-Christian ethics
- List of burial places of Abrahamic figures
- Yazidism
- Milah Abraham
- Nigerian Chrislam
- People of the Book
- Sabians
- Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions
Notes
- ^ "So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."[citation needed] "In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring."Romans 9:8
- ^ Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.[citation needed]
- ^ According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah, page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.
- ^ Compare Genesis 9:4–6.
References
Citations
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- ^ Goshen-Gottstein, Alon. "Abraham and ‘Abrahamic Religions’ in Contemporary Interreligious Discourse." Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12.2 (2002): 165-183.
- ^ Kiel, Yishai. "The contours of Abrahamic identity: a Zoroastrian perspective." Geneses: A Comparative Study of the Historiographies of the Rise of Christianity, Rabbinic Judaism, and Islam (2019): 19-34.
- ^ GhaneaBassiri, Kambiz, and Paul Robertson, eds. All religion is inter-religion: engaging the work of Steven M. Wasserstrom. Bloomsbury Publishing, 2019.
- ^ Schubel, Vernon James. "Teaching Islam as an Asian Religion." EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA 10.1 (2005).
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- ^ Wormald 2015.
- ^ "Druze in Syria". Harvard University.
The Druze are an ethnoreligious group concentrated in Syria, Lebanon, and Israel with around one million adherents worldwide. The Druze follow a millenarian offshoot of Isma'ili Shi'ism. Followers emphasize Abrahamic monotheism but consider the religion as separate from Islam.
- ^ Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018.
- ^ a b Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.
- ^ Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230-253.
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- ^ a b Hughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17
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- ^ Hatcher & Martin (1998), pp. 130–31; Bremer (2015), p. 19–20; Able (2011), p. 219; Dever (2001), pp. 97–102
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- ^ Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 14-15
- ^ Edelman (1995), p. 19; Gnuse (2016), p. 5; Carraway (2013), p. 66: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."; Finkelstein & Silberman (2002), p. 234: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."
- ^ a b "BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife?". BBC. 21 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 January 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012. Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."
- ^ Hayes, Christine (3 July 2008). "Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006". Center for Online Judaic Studies. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.
Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors.
- ^ Kaufmann Kohler; A. V. Williams Jackson (1906). "Zoroastrianism ("Resemblances Between Zoroastrianism and Judaism" and "Causes of Analogies Uncertain")". The Jewish Encyclopaedia. Retrieved 3 February 2022.
- ISBN 9780567216175."there is general agreement that Persian religion and tradition had its influence on Judaismover the centuries" and the "question is where this influence was and which of the developments in Judaism can be ascribed to the Iranian side as opposed to the effect of the Greek or other cultures".
- ^ Black & Rowley 1982, p. 607b.
- ^ Pavlac, Brian A (2010). A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities. Chapter 6.
- ^ Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 516.
- ^ Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 517.
- ^ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41
- ^ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41-57
- ^ Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41
- ^ Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25-39
- ^ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʼān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 4 November 2007.
- ^ a b Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 62
- ^ Athamina, Khalil. "Abraham in Islamic perspective reflections on the development of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia." (2004): 184-205.
- ^ Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance Archived 21 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 5 August 2009.
- ^ a b Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41.
- ^ a b Peters 2018.
- ^ "Religion: Three Religions – One God". Global Connections of the Middle East. WGBH Educational Foundation. 2002. Archived from the original on 17 September 2009. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
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- ^ Kunst, Thomsen & Sam 2014, pp. 337–348.
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According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition.
- ^ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)" Archived 16 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine. The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
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However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage.
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Further reading
- "Religion: Year In Review 2010". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010.
- Assmann, Jan (1998). Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism. ISBN 978-0-674-58739-7.
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- Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2699-5.
- Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
- Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology, (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998
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- Kritzeck, James (1965). Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems. Helicon.
- Longton, Joseph (1987–2009). "Fils d'Abraham: Panorama des communautés juives, chrétiennes et musulmanes" [Sons of Abraham: Overview of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities]. In Longton, Joseph (ed.). Fils d'Abraham (in French). S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous. ISBN 978-2-503-82344-7.
- Masumian, Farnaz (1995). Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions. Oxford: ISBN 978-1-85168-074-0.
- de Perceval, Armand-Pierre Caussin (1847). Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane [Calcutta review – Essay on the history of the Arabs before Islamism, during the time of Muhammad, and up to the reduction of all the tribes under Muslim rule] (in French). Paris: Didot. OCLC 431247004.
- Reid, Barbara E. (1996). Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke. Liturgical Press.
- Silverstein, Adam J.; Stroumsa, Guy G., eds. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions. New York: ISBN 978-0-19-969776-2.
- Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam, a guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton, NJ: ISBN 9780691122335.
- ISBN 978-0-226-79156-2.
- ISBN 978-0802833501.
External links
- Quotations related to Abrahamic religions at Wikiquote