Academy

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Bologna University, Italy, established in AD 1088, is the world's oldest academic institution in continuous operation

.

An academy (

Athens

, Greece.

The Royal Spanish Academy defines academy as scientific, literary or artistic society established with public authority and as a teaching establishment, public or private, of a professional, artistic, technical or simply practical nature.^[1]

Etymology

The word comes from the Academy in

In these gardens, the philosopher

Old Academy

.

By extension, academia has come to mean the accumulation, development and transmission of knowledge across generations as well as its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning.

Origins

Original Academy

Before Akademia was a school, and even before

and other immortals.

Plato's immediate successors as "scholarch" of Akademia were Speusippus (347–339 BC), Xenocrates (339–314 BC), Polemon (314–269 BC), Crates (c. 269–266 BC), and Arcesilaus (c. 266–240 BC). Later scholarchs include Lacydes of Cyrene, Carneades, Clitomachus, and Philo of Larissa ("the last undisputed head of the Academy").^[5][6] Other notable members of Akademia include Aristotle, Heraclides Ponticus, Eudoxus of Cnidus, Philip of Opus, Crantor, and Antiochus of Ascalon.

Neoplatonic Academy of Late Antiquity

After a lapse during the early Roman occupation, Akademia was refounded

The last "Greek" philosophers of the revived Akademia in the 6th century were drawn from various parts of the

The

Edessa

. One of the last leading figures of this group was Simplicius, a pupil of Damascius, the last head of the Athenian school.

It has been speculated that Akademia did not altogether disappear.

Ancient and medieval institutions

Ancient world

Greece and early Europe

In ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy,

in another gymnasium.

Africa

The

from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics.

The University of Timbuktu was a medieval university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali, which comprised three schools: the Mosque of Djinguereber, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Sankore. During its zenith, the university had an average attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people.

China

In China a higher education institution

.

In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named

) can be classified as higher institutions of learning.

India

It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the 5th century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous

Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The Vedas and the Eighteen Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical school, and school of military science.^[17]

Nalanda, ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India^[18][19]

from 427 to 1197

The center had eight separate compounds, 10 temples, meditation halls, classrooms, lakes and parks. It had a nine-story library where monks meticulously copied books and documents so that individual scholars could have their own collections. It had dormitories for students, perhaps a first for an educational institution, housing 10,000 students in the university's heyday and providing accommodation for 2,000 professors.[20] Nalanda University attracted pupils and scholars from Korea, Japan, China, Tibet, Indonesia, Persia and Turkey.

Persia

The geographical position of

Under the

Islamic world

Founded in

. Its library had an initial collection of 80,000 volumes, given by the Caliph. The collection was said to have grown to 400,000 volumes.

Medieval Europe

In Europe, the academy dates to the ancient Greeks and Romans in the pre-Christian era. Newer universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the European institution of academia took shape. Monks and priests moved out of monasteries to cathedral cities and other towns where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study.

The most notable of these new schools were in Bologna and Salerno, Naples, Salamanca, Paris, Oxford and Cambridge, while others were opened throughout Europe.

The seven

. This was the basis of the curriculum in Europe until newly available Arabic texts and the works of Aristotle became more available in Europe in the 12th century.

It remained in place even after the new scholasticism of the School of Chartres and the encyclopedic work of Thomas Aquinas, until the humanism of the 15th and 16th centuries opened new studies of arts and sciences.

Renaissance academies in Italy

With the Neoplatonist revival that accompanied the revival of humanist studies, academia took on newly vivid connotations.

15th-century academies

During the

.

Main article:

Roman academies

In Rome, after unity was restored following the

, but he left behind him ardent adherents of the classic philosophy.

The next generation of humanists were bolder admirers of pagan culture, especially in the highly personal academy of

In Naples, the Quattrocento academy founded by Alfonso of Aragon and guided by Antonio Beccadelli was the Porticus Antoniana, later known as the Accademia Pontaniana, after Giovanni Pontano.

16th-century literary-aesthetic academies

The 16th century saw at Rome a great increase of literary and aesthetic academies, more or less inspired by the Renaissance, all of which assumed, as was the fashion, odd and fantastic names. We learn from various sources the names of many such institutes; as a rule, they soon perished and left no trace. In the 1520s came the Accademia degli Intronati, for the encouragement of theatrical representations. There were also the academy of the "Vignaiuoli", or "Vinegrowers" (1530), and the Accademia della Virtù [it] (1542), founded by Claudio Tolomei under the patronage of Cardinal Ippolito de' Medici. These were followed by a new academy in the "Orti" or Farnese gardens. There were also the academies of the "Intrepidi" (1560), the "Animosi" (1576), and the "Illuminati" (1598); this last, founded by the Marchesa Isabella Aldobrandini Pallavicino. Towards the middle of the 16th century there were also the academy of the "Notti Vaticane", or "Vatican Nights", founded by St. Charles Borromeo; an "Accademia di Diritto civile e canonico", and another of the university scholars and students of philosophy (Accademia Eustachiana). As a rule these academies, all very much alike, were merely circles of friends or clients gathered around a learned man or wealthy patron, and were dedicated to literary pastimes rather than methodical study. They fitted in, nevertheless, with the general situation and were in their own way one element of the historical development. Despite their empirical and fugitive character, they helped to keep up the general esteem for literary and other studies. Cardinals, prelates, and the clergy in general were most favourable to this movement, and assisted it by patronage and collaboration.

In Florence, the Medici again took the lead in establishing the

of Rome (founded 1593) helped to confirm the use of the term for these institutions.

17th- and 18th-century academies in Europe

Gradually academies began to specialize on particular topics (arts, language, sciences) and began to be founded and funded by the kings and other sovereigns (few republics had an academy). And, mainly, since 17th century academies spread throughout Europe.

Literary-philosophical academies

In the 17th century the tradition of literary-philosophical academies, as circles of friends gathering around learned patrons, was continued in Italy; the "

.

Academies of the arts

The

Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera

in Milan (1776) still run art schools and hold large exhibitions, although their influence on taste greatly declined from the late 19th century.

A fundamental feature of academic discipline in the artistic academies was regular practice in making accurate drawings from antiquities, or from casts of antiquities, on the one hand, and on the other, in deriving inspiration from the other fount, the human form. Students assembled in sessions drawing the draped and undraped human form, and such drawings, which survive in the tens of thousands from the 17th through the 19th century, are termed académies in French.

Similar institutions were often established for other arts: Rome had the

from 1671.

Linguistic academies

The

. The Crusca long remained a private institution, criticizing and opposing the official Accademia Fiorentina.

The first institution inspired by the Crusca was the Fruitbearing Society for German language, which existed from 1617 to 1680.

The Crusca inspired

, charged with publishing the official dictionary of that language. The following year the Académie received letters patent from the king Louis XIII as the only recognized academy for French language.

In its turn the state established Académie was the model for the

, founded in 1783, which afterwards merged into the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Academies of sciences

Main article:

Academy of Sciences

After the short-lived Academia Secretorum Naturae of Naples, the first academy exclusively devoted to sciences was the Accademia dei Lincei founded in 1603 in Rome, particularly focused on natural sciences. In 1657 some students of

. This academy lasted after few decades.

In 1652 was founded the

So, it became the academy of sciences for the whole Holy Roman Empire.

On 28 November 1660, a group of scientists from and influenced by the Invisible College (gathering approximately since 1645) met at Gresham College and announced the formation of a "College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematical Experimental Learning", which would meet weekly to discuss science and run experiments. In 1662

which created the "Royal Society of London", then "Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge".

In 1666

.

Although Prussia was a member of Holy Roman Empire, in 1700

, who was appointed president.

During the 18th century many European kings followed and founded their own academy of sciences: in 1714 the

.

This kind of academy lost importance after the university reform begun with the foundation of the

University of Berlin

, when universities were provided with laboratories and clinics, and were charged with doing experimental research.

Academic societies

Academic societies or learned societies began as groups of academics who worked together or presented their work to each other. These informal groups later became organized and in many cases state-approved. Membership was restricted, usually requiring approval of the current members and often total membership was limited to a specific number. The Royal Society founded in 1660 was the first such academy. The American Academy of Arts and Sciences was begun in 1780 by many of the same people prominent in the American Revolution. Academic societies served both as a forum to present and publish academic work, the role now served by academic publishing, and as a means to sponsor research and support academics, a role they still serve. Membership in academic societies is still a matter of prestige in modern academia.

Military academies

At first such institutions only trained the

(1741), the Real Colegio de Artilleria in Segovia (1764).

Starting at the end of the 16th century in the Holy Roman Empire, France, Poland and Denmark, many Knight academies were established to prepare the aristocratic youth for state and military service. Many of them lately turned into gymnasiums, but some of them were transformed into true military academies.

The Royal Danish Military Academy began to educate all officers for the Royal Danish Army by request of King Frederick IV in 1713.

The

in 1750 with the aim of creating an academic college for cadet officers from poor families. The construction began in 1752, but the school did not open until 1760.

The

These were the model for the subsequent military academies throughout Europe, like the Reale Accademia Militare of Naples in 1787 and the Military Academy Karlberg in 1792.

Modern use of the term academy

Theofil Hansen, 1885, in Greek Ionic

, academically correct even to the polychrome sculpture

Åbo Akademi, an academy building designed by Charles Bassi, was built on 1833 in Turku, Finland

.

The term is used widely today to refer to anything from schools to

funding agencies

to private industry associations.

Academy of Finland

is a government-run funding agency, Suomalainen tiedeakatemia is a learned society.

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, which presents the annual Academy Awards, is an example of a purely industry body using the name. College-type specialized academies include the Royal Academy of Music of the United Kingdom; the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York; the United States Naval Academy; United States Air Force Academy; and the Australian Defence Force Academy. In emulation of the military academies, police in the United States are trained in police academies.

Because of the tradition of intellectual brilliance associated with this institution, many groups have chosen to use the word "academy" in their name, especially specialized tertiary educational institutions. In the early 19th century "academy" took the connotations that "

was more like the American examples. Academy was also used very loosely for various commercial training schools for dancing and the like.

Mozart organized public subscription performances of his music in Vienna in the 1780s and 1790s, he called the concerts "academies". This usage in musical terms survives in the concert orchestra Academy of St Martin in the Fields and in the Brixton Academy, a concert hall in Brixton, South London.

Academies proliferated in the 20th century until even a three-week series of lectures and discussions would be termed an "academy". In addition, the generic term "the academy" is sometimes used to refer to all of academia, which is sometimes considered a global successor to the academy of Athens.

French regional academies overseeing education

In France, regional academic councils called academies are responsible for supervising all aspects of education in their region. The academy regions are similar to, but not identical to, the standard French administrative regions. The rector of each academy is a revocable nominee of the Ministry of Education. These academies' main responsibility is overseeing primary and secondary education, but public universities are in some respects also answerable to the academy for their region. However, French private universities are independent of the state and therefore independent of the regional academies.

Russian research academies

In

. The latter one still exists in Russia, although other types of academies (study and honorary) appeared as well.

English school types

Tertiary education

From the mid-seventeenth to the 19th centuries, educational institutions in England run by nonconformist groups that did not agree with the Church of England teachings were collectively known as "the dissenting academies". As a place at an English public school or university generally required conformity to the Church of England, these institutions provided an alternative for those with different religious views and formed a significant part of England's educational system.

.

Primary and secondary education

In 2000, a form of "independent state schools", called "

The Queen's Speech, which followed the 2010 general election, included proposals for a bill to allow the Secretary of State for Education to approve schools, both Primary and Secondary, that have been graded "outstanding" by Ofsted, to become academies. This was to be through a simplified streamlined process not requiring sponsors to provide capital funding.^[31]

In 2012, the UK government began forcing some schools which had been graded satisfactory or lower into becoming academies, unilaterally removing existing governing bodies and head teachers in some cases. An example was Downhills Primary School in Haringey, where the head teacher refused to turn the school into an academy. OFSTED were called in to assess the school, failed it, and both the head and the governing body were removed and replaced with a Government-appointed board despite opposition from the school and parents.^[32][33]

United States

Prior to the twentieth century, education was not as carefully structured in the United States as it is in the twenty-first. There was not a rigid division between high school and colleges. The typical college at first included a preparatory unit, which it dropped by 1900.^[34]

In the nineteenth century an academy was what later became known as a high school; in most places in the U.S. there were no public schools above the primary level. Some older high schools, such as

was formed in 1802 as a college. It never included a preparatory unit.

The academy movement in the US in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the new western states. Thousands of academies were started using local funds and tuition; most closed after a few years and others were established. In 1860 there were 6,415 academies in operation. When the Civil War erupted in 1861 they generally closed down temporarily; most in the South never reopened.[35]

Germany

During

was an education based on individuality, creativity, wholeness, and versatility. Many continental European universities are still rooted in these ideas (or at least pay lip-service to them). They are, however, in contradiction to today's massive trend of specialization in academia.

Academic personnel

An academic is a person who works as a teacher or researcher at a university or other higher education institution. An academic usually holds an advanced degree. The term scholar is sometimes used with equivalent meaning to that of academic and describes in general those who attain mastery in a research discipline. It has wider application, with it also being used to describe those whose occupation was research prior to organized higher education.

Academic administrators such as university presidents are not typically included in this use of the term academic, although many administrators hold advanced degrees and pursue scholarly research and writing while also tending to their administrative duties.

In the United States, the term academic is approximately synonymous with that of the job title professor although in recent decades a growing number of institutions include librarians in the category of "academic staff". In the

]

Structure

Academia is usually conceived as divided into

.

The disciplines have been much revised, and many new disciplines have become more specialized, researching smaller and smaller areas. Because of this,

interdisciplinary research is often prized in today's academy, though it can also be made difficult both by practical matters of administration and funding and by differing research methods of different disciplines. In fact, many new fields of study have initially been conceived as interdisciplinary, and later become specialized disciplines in their own right – a recent example is cognitive science

.

Most academic institutions reflect the divide of the disciplines in their

tenure

system, a major component of academic employment and research in the US, serves to ensure that academia is relatively protected from political and financial pressures on thought.

Qualifications

Main article: Academic degree

The degree awarded for completed study is the primary academic qualification. Typically these are, in order of completion,

Bologna process, as many different degrees and standards of time to reach each are currently awarded in different countries in Europe. In most fields the majority of academic researchers and teachers have doctorates or other terminal degrees, though in some professional

and creative fields it is common for scholars and teachers to have only master's degrees.

Academic conferences

Main article: Academic conference

Closely related to academic publishing is the practice of bringing a number of intellectuals in a field to give talks on their research at an academic conference, often allowing for a wider audience to be exposed to their ideas.

Conflicting goals

Within academia, diverse constituent groups have diverse, and sometimes conflicting, goals. In the contemporary academy several of these conflicts are widely distributed and common. A salient example of conflict is that between the goal to improve teaching quality and the goal to reduce costs. The conflicting goals of professional education programs and general education advocates currently are playing out in the negotiation over accreditation standards. For example, the goals of research for profit and for the sake of knowledge often conflict to some degree.^{[citation needed]}

Practice and theory

Putting theory into practice can result in a gap between what is learned in academic settings and how that learning is manifested in practical settings. This is addressed in a number of professional schools such as education and social work, which require students to participate in practica for credit. Students are taught to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Not everyone agrees on the value of theory as opposed to practice. Academics are sometimes criticized as lacking practical experience and thus too insulated from the 'real world,' and some scholars avoid this criticism by labeling themselves as blue-collar scholars to showcase their past lived experience related to their teaching and research. Academic insularity is colloquially criticized as being "ivory tower"; when used pejoratively, this term is criticized as anti-intellectualism.

To address this split, there is a growing body of

Arts and humanities departments debate how to define this emerging research phenomenon. There are a variety of contested models of practice research (practice-as-research, practice-based and practice through research), for example, screen media practice research

.

Nepotism

Nepotism is frequent in academia [1][2][3] where it is frequent for professors to have their partners, and sometimes children, hired by the same faculty in which they work.

Town and gown

Main article: Town and gown

Universities are often culturally distinct from the towns or cities where they reside. In some cases this leads to discomfort or outright conflict between local residents and members of the university over political, economic, or other issues. Some localities in the Northeastern United States, for instance, have tried to block students from registering to vote as local residents—instead encouraging them to vote by absentee ballot at their primary residence—in order to retain control of local politics.^{[citation needed]} Other issues can include deep cultural and class divisions between local residents and university students. The film Breaking Away dramatizes such a conflict.

Academic publishing

Main article: Academic publishing

History of academic journals

Among the earliest

research journals were the Proceedings of Meetings of the Royal Society in the 17th century. At that time, the act of publishing academic inquiry was controversial, and widely ridiculed. It was not at all unusual for a new discovery to be announced as an anagram, reserving priority for the discoverer, but indecipherable for anyone not in on the secret: both Isaac Newton and Leibniz used this approach. However, this method did not work well. Robert K. Merton

, a sociologist, found that 92 percent of cases of simultaneous discovery in the 17th century ended in dispute. The number of disputes dropped to 72 percent in the 18th century, 59 percent by the latter half of the 19th century, and 33 percent by the first half of the 20th century. The decline in contested claims for priority in research discoveries can be credited to the increasing acceptance of the publication of papers in modern academic journals.

The Royal Society was steadfast in its unpopular belief that science could only move forward through a transparent and open exchange of ideas backed by experimental evidence. Many of the experiments were ones that we would not recognize as scientific today—nor were the questions they answered. For example, when the Duke of Buckingham was admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society on June 5, 1661, he presented the Society with a vial of powdered "unicorn horn". It was a well-accepted 'fact' that a circle of unicorn's horn would act as an invisible cage for any spider. Robert Hooke, the chief experimenter of the Royal Society, emptied the Duke's vial into a circle on a table and dropped a spider in the centre of the circle. The spider promptly walked out of the circle and off the table. In its day, this was cutting-edge research.

Current status and development

Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "publish or perish". Except for generalist journals such as Science or Nature, the topics covered in any single journal have tended to be narrow, and readership and citation have declined. A variety of methods for reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, peer review by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and curriculum vitae.

Andrew Odlyzko, an academician with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to Internet forums over the coming decade,^[36] by extending the interactivity of current Internet preprints. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive.

Academic dress

Main article: Academic dress

Gowns have been associated with academia since the birth of the university in the 14th and 15th centuries, perhaps because most early scholars were priests or church officials. Over time, the gowns worn by degree-holders have become standardized to some extent, although traditions in individual countries and even institutions have established a diverse range of gown styles, and some have ended the custom entirely, even for graduation ceremonies.

At some universities, such as the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, undergraduates may be required to wear gowns on formal occasions and on graduation. Undergraduate gowns are usually a shortened version of a bachelor's gown. At other universities, for example, outside the UK or US, the custom is entirely absent. Students at the University of Trinity College at the University of Toronto wear gowns to formal dinner, debates, to student government, and to many other places.

In general, in the US and UK, recipients of a bachelor's degree are entitled to wear a simple full-length robe without adornment and a

mortarboard

cap with a tassel. In addition, holders of a bachelor's degree may be entitled to wear a ceremonial hood at some schools. In the US, bachelor's hoods are rarely seen. Bachelor's hoods are generally smaller versions of those worn by recipients of master's and doctoral degrees.

Recipients of a master's degree in the US or UK wear a similar cap and gown but closed sleeves with slits, and usually receive a ceremonial hood that hangs down the back of the gown. In the US the hood is traditionally edged with a silk or velvet strip displaying the disciplinary color, and is lined with the university's colors.

According to The American Council on Education "six-year specialist degrees (

Ed.S., etc.) and other degrees that are intermediate between the master's and the doctor's degree may have hoods specially designed (1) intermediate in length between the master's and doctor's hood, (2) with a four-inch velvet border (also intermediate between the widths of the borders of master's and doctor's hoods), and (3) with color distributed in the usual fashion and according to the usual rules. Cap tassels should be uniformly black."^[37]

Recipients of a doctoral degree tend to have the most elaborate academic dress, and hence there is the greatest diversity at this level. In the US, doctoral gowns are similar to the gowns worn by master's graduates, with the addition of velvet stripes across the sleeves and running down the front of the gown which may be tinted with the disciplinary color for the degree received. Holders of a doctoral degree may be entitled or obliged to wear scarlet (a special gown in scarlet) on high days and special occasions. While some doctoral graduates wear the mortarboard cap traditional to the lower degree levels, most wear a cap or Tudor bonnet that resembles a

tam o'shanter

, from which a colored tassel is suspended.

In modern times, in the US and UK, gowns are normally only worn at graduation ceremonies, although some colleges still demand the wearing of academic dress on formal occasions (official banquets and other similar affairs). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was more common to see the dress worn in the classroom, a practice which has now all but disappeared. Two notable exceptions are

Sewanee

, where students are required to wear formal academic dress in the examination room.

See also

• Abstract management
• Academic acceleration
• Academic careerism
• Academic conference
• Academic dishonesty
• Academic elitism
• Academic inflation
• Academic inbreeding
• Academic mobility
• Academic paper mill
• Category:Academic terminology
• Academic conference
• Academic writing
• Academician
• Bullying in academia
• Byzantine university
• College rivalry
• Education
• French mathematical seminars
• List of academic disciplines
• List of fields of doctoral studies
• List of honorary societies
• Learned society
• Lyceum (classical)
• Medieval university
• Medieval university (Asia)
• Proceedings
• Pseudo-scholarship
• Pseudoscience
• Research
• Scholarly article
• Scholarly method
• Scientific community
• Scientific method
• Seminar
• Sophism

References

1. ^ "Academy". Rae (in Spanish).
2. ^ "academe". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
3. ^ Plutarch Life of Cimon 13.8
4. ^ Thucydides ii:34
5. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (1996), s.v. "Philon of Larissa."
6. ^ See the table in The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy (Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 53–54.
7. S2CID 163730386
   .
8. ^ ^{a b c} Gerald Bechtle, Bryn Mawr Classical Review of Rainer Thiel, Simplikios und das Ende der neuplatonischen Schule in Athen. Stuttgart, 1999 Archived 2005-03-13 at Wikiwix (in English).
9. ^ ^{a b} Richard Sorabji, (2005), The Philosophy of the Commentators, 200–600 AD: Psychology (with Ethics and Religion), page 11. Cornell University Press
10. ^ "Introduction of Hunan University". Hunan University.
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    , p. 141:

    We have to be extremely cautious in dealing with the literary evidence, because much of the information offered in the secondary literature on Taxila is derived from the Jataka prose that was only fixed in Ceylon several hundred years after the events that it purports to describe, probably some time after Buddhaghosa, i.e. around A.D. 500.

12. ^ "History of Education", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
13. ISBN 90-04-12556-6
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14. ^ Marshall, John (1975) [1951]. Taxila: Volume I. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 81.
15. ^ Kautilya. Archived 2008-01-10 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
16. ISBN 81-208-0405-8
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17. ^
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18. ^ ^{a b} Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1965). Education in Ancient India, Sixth, Varanasi: Nand Kishore & Bros.
19. ^ ^{a b} "Really Old School", Garten, Jeffrey E. New York Times, 9 December 2006.
20. ^ "Official website of Nalanda University". Archived from the original on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 2018-05-12.
21. ^
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22. ISBN 88-02-03568-7
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    .
24. Ludwig Pastor
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25. ^ As for instance in the monumental A History of Magic and Experimental Science by Lynn Thorndike (see online).
26. ^ Self-produced overview of the Leopoldina Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine (accessed May 27, 2005)
27. ^ Groschenheft magazine on the Leopoldina's anniversary (German) Archived March 11, 2007, at the Wayback Machine (accessed May 27, 2005)
28. ^ "Theresian military academy timeline" (in German). Archived from the original on 2014-08-06. Retrieved 2016-09-08.
29. ^ Rebecca Smithers, The Guardian, July 6, 2005, "Hedge fund charity plans city academies" Archived 2006-02-02 at the Wayback Machine
30. ^ Coughlan, Sean (10 September 2002). "Academy opens doors to the future". BBC News. Archived from the original on 28 June 2004.
31. ^ "Academies Act 2010". Archived from the original on 17 December 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
32. ^ "BBC News – Academy row school governors sacked by Michael Gove". BBC News. 15 March 2012. Archived from the original on 13 August 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
33. ^ David Hardiman. "Protesting parents 'disgusted' with Downhills governors' removal". Haringey Independent. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
34. ^ J. M. Opal. “Exciting Emulation: Academies and the Transformation of the Rural North, 1780s-1820s.” Journal of American History 91#2 (2004), pp. 445–70. online
35. ^ Colin Burke, American collegiate populations: A test of the traditional view (NYU Press, 1982) table 1.20
36. ISSN 1071-5819
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37. ^ "Six-Year Specialist Degrees". Archived from the original on 6 December 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-03.

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• Christopher J. Lucas and John W. Murry, Jr. New Faculty A practical Guide for Academic Beginners. New York: Modern Language Association, 1992.
• John A. Goldsmith, John Komlosk and Penny Schine Gold. The Chicago Guide to Your Academic Career. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002.
• William Germano. Getting it Published: A Guide for Scholars (And Anyone Else)Serious about Serious Books. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.
• Kemp, Roger L. "Town and Gown Relations: A Handbook of Best Practices", McFarland and Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, US, and London, England, UK (2013). (
  ISBN 978-0-7864-6399-2
  ).

Further reading

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Academies".

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Academy, Greek".

• Alan Cameron, "The last days of the Academy at Athens", in Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society vol 195 (n.s. 15), 1969, pp 7–29.
• Gerald Bechtle, Bryn Mawr Classical Review of Rainer Thiel, Simplikios und das Ende der neuplatonischen Schule in Athen. Stuttgart, 1999 (in English).
• John Glucker, Antiochus and the Late Academy, Göttingen 1978.
• Francis Haskell and Nicholas Penny, 1981. Taste and the Antique: The Lure of Classical Sculpture, 1500–1900 (New Haven: Yale University Press)

External links

• Academia.edu – Online community of academic scholars. Despite the .edu ending, it is a profit-making company, not a non-profit educational establishment. (The .edu has not been allowed to be used this way since 2001; academia.edu antedates that.)
• An Academic costume code and an Academic ceremony guide
• eto.academy Archived 2020-06-12 at the Wayback Machine Online community web schools
• Bibliography on the history of the university, provided by Palinurus: The Academy and the Corporation, a web site from the University of California, Santa Barbara
• 'IIRAJ' – International Institute of Research and Journals Archived 2022-07-03 at the Wayback Machine
• 'Magistri et Scholares' – Academic News and Resources
• Plato's Academy Archived 2011-05-19 at the Wayback Machine, from the Hellenic Ministry of Culture
• Italian Academies Database (IAD): bl.uk/ItalianAcademies Archived 2009-02-10 at the Wayback Machine
• Website of the Italian Academies 1525–1700 Project