Accipitridae
Accipitridae | |
---|---|
Common buzzard (Buteo buteo) | |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Aves |
Order: | Accipitriformes |
Family: | Accipitridae Vieillot, 1816 |
Subfamilies | |
|
The Accipitridae (
Many well-known birds such as
Systematics and phylogeny
The accipitrids have been variously divided into some five to ten
The accipitrids are recognizable by a peculiar rearrangement of their
According to the molecular data, the Buteoninae are most likely
Taxonomy
Below is the taxonomy after the phylogeny from the studies of Mindell et al. (2018),[8] Starikov & Wink (2020),[9] and Sangster et al. (2021).[10] The family contains 255 species and is divided into 70 genera.[11]
- Subfamily Elaninae – elanine kites (might be a separate but related family)[9][12]
- Genus Gampsonyx
- Genus Chelictinia
- Genus Elanus
- Subfamily Gypaetinae – gypaetine vultures and harrier-hawks
- Genus Polyboroides
- Genus Gypohierax
- Genus Neophron
- Genus Gypaetus
- Subfamily Perninae – honey-buzzards (including pernine kites, cuckoo-hawks, bazas and Madagascar serpent eagle)
- Genus Eutriorchis
- Genus Leptodon
- Genus Chondrohierax
- Genus Elanoides
- Genus Pernis
- Genus Aviceda
- Genus Hamirostra
- Genus Lophoictinia
- Genus Henicopernis
- Subfamily Circaetinae – serpent eagles
- Genus Spilornis
- Genus Pithecophaga
- Genus Terathopius
- Genus Circaetus
- Genus Dryotriorchis
- Subfamily Aegypiinae – Old World vultures
- Genus Sarcogyps
- Genus Trigonoceps
- Genus Torgos
- Genus Aegypius
- Genus Necrosyrtes
- Genus Gyps
- Subfamily Harpiinae – forest eagles
- Genus Macheiramphus
- Genus Harpyopsis
- Genus Morphnus
- Genus Harpia
- Subfamily Aquilinae – booted eagles
- Genus Stephanoaetus
- Genus Nisaetus
- Genus Spizaetus
- Genus Lophotriorchis
- Genus Polemaetus
- Genus Lophaetus
- Genus Ictinaetus
- Genus Clanga
- Genus Hieraaetus
- Genus Aquila (paraphyletic to Hieraaetus)[8]
- Subfamily Lophospizinae – crested goshawk
- Genus Lophospiza
- Subfamily Harpaginae – harpagine hawks and kites
- Genus Microspizias
- Genus Kaupifalco
- Genus Harpagus
- Subfamily Melieraxinae– melieraxine hawks
- Genus Micronisus
- Genus Melierax
- Genus Urotriorchis
- Subfamily Accipitrinae – accipitrine hawks[8]
- Genus Erythrotriorchis
- Genus Megatriorchis
- Genus Accipiter
- Subfamily Circinae
- Genus Circus
- Subfamily Buteoninae – buteonine hawks (including milvine kites and sea-eagles)[8]
- Genus Milvus
- Genus Haliastur
- Genus Haliaeetus
- Genus Icthyophaga
- Genus Butastur
- Genus Ictinia
- Genus Busarellus
- Genus Rostrhamus
- Genus Helicolestes
- Genus Geranospiza
- Genus Cryptoleucopteryx
- Genus Buteogallus
- Genus Morphnarchus
- Genus Rupornis
- Genus Parabuteo
- Genus Geranoaetus
- Genus Pseudastur
- Genus Leucopternis
- Genus †Bermuteo
- Genus Buteo
Fossil record
As with most other birds of prey, the
- Milvoides (Late Eocene of England)
- Aquilavus (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene – Early Miocene of France)
- Palaeocircus (Late Eocene/Early Oligocene of France)
- Aviraptor (Early Oligocene of Poland)[13]
- Palaeastur (Agate Fossil Beds, Early Miocene of Sioux County, US)
- Pengana (Early Miocene of Riversleigh, Australia)
- Promilio (Agate Fossil Beds Early Miocene of Sioux County, US)
- Proictinia (Early – Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of C and SE US)
- Neophrontops (Early/Middle Miocene – Late Pleistocene) – formerly in Neophron
- Mioaegypius (Xiacaowan Middle Miocene of Sihong, China)
- Apatosagittarius (Late Miocene of Nebraska, US)
- Gansugyps (Liushu Late Miocene of China)
- Palaeoborus (Miocene)
- Qiluornis (Miocene of Shandong, China)
- Garganoaetus (Early Pliocene of Gargano Peninsula, Italy)
- Dynatoaetus (Pliocene – Pleistocene of South Australia, Australia)
- Amplibuteo (Late Pliocene of Peru – Late Pleistocene of southern North America and Cuba) – may belong to extant genus Harpyhaliaetus
- Neogyps
- Palaeohierax – includes "Aquila" gervaisii
Accipitrids are known since
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Huerfano Early Eocene of Huerfano County, US)[14]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Borgloon Early Oligocene of Hoogbutsel, Belgium)[15]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Bathans Early/Middle Miocene of Otago, New Zealand)[16]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. MPEF-PV-2523 (Puerto Madryn Late Miocene of Estancia La Pastosa, Argentina)
- "Aquila" danana (Snake Creek Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Loup Fork, US) – formerly also Geranoaetus or Buteo
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Early/Middle Pliocene of Kern County, US) – Parabuteo?[17]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Late Pliocene/Early Pleistocene of Ibiza, Mediterranean) – Buteo?[18]
- Accipitridae gen. et sp. indet. (Egypt)
Specimen
Morphology
The Accipitridae are a diverse family with a great deal of variation in size and shape. They range in size from the tiny
The beaks of accipitrids are strong and hooked (sometimes very hooked, as in the
The
The senses of the Accipitridae are adapted to hunting (or scavenging), and in particular their vision is exceptional, with some large accipitrids such as the wedge-tailed eagle and Old World vultures having over twice the visual acuity of a typical human.[30][31][32] Large eyes with two foveae provide binocular vision and a "hawk eye" for movement and distance judging. In addition the Accipitridae have the largest pectens of any birds. The eyes are tube shaped and cannot move much in their sockets. In addition to excellent vision many species have excellent hearing[citation needed], but unlike in owls sight is generally the principal sense used for hunting. Hearing may be used to locate prey hidden in vegetation, but sight is still used to catch the prey. Although they rely primarily on vision, Accipitridae do have functioning olfactory systems, which they make use of in a variety of contexts.[33]
Diet and behavior
Accipitrids are predominantly
Among the raptors that mainly favor small mammals, harriers generally hunt by hovering over openings until they detect their prey and descend upon them. Due to the specificity of their hunting style, prey preferences, and habitat preferences, usually only one harrier species tends to be found per region.[34]
Buteonine hawks usually watch for prey from a perch but most species will also readily hunt on the wing, including from a high soar. Many buteonines are amongst the most generalized feeders, often feeding on any active small animal they find, and will generally eat whatever diurnal rodent or lagomorph is most locally common. Some buteonines, however, are more specialized, such as certain species in the genus Buteogallus, which have evolved to specialize in feeding on crabs. Larger Buteogallus, namely the solitary eagles, and Geranoaetus are much larger than other buteonines and seem to have become avian apex predators of specific habitat niches—for example, savanna, cloud forest and páramo in South America—and are thus honorary "eagles".[35][36]
In Accipiter hawks (the most species-rich accipitrid genus with nearly 50 extant species), prey is mainly other birds. Accipiters are in general forest- and thicket-dwelling species. Accipiter hawks usually ambush birds in dense vegetation, a dangerous hunting method that requires great agility. Many smaller tropical species of Accipiter eat nearly equal portions of insects and reptiles and amphibians as they do of birds while some of the larger species have become more generalized and may feed extensively on rodents and lagomorphs, as well as other various non-avian animals.
Most accipitrids will supplement their diet with non-putrid
A few species may opportunistically feed on fruit. In one species, the palm-nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis) (possibly not closely related to other "vultures"), it may form more than half of the diet.[37] Most accipitrids will not eat plant material.
Insects are taken exclusively by around 12 species, in great numbers by 44 additional species, and opportunistically by a great many others.[27] The diet of the honey-buzzards includes not only the adults and young of social insects such as wasps and bees, but the honey and combs from their nests.[38]
The snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis), slender-billed kite (Helicolestes hamatus) and hook-billed kites (Chondrohierax uncinatus) are specialists in consuming snails, which usually constitute 50–95% of their diet. Other "kites"—a loose assemblance of smallish raptors, many of which are strong, buoyant fliers—are divided into two groups. One, exclusively in the Old World, the milvine or "large" kites, are often quite common, very generalized and often weakly predaceous feeders whereas the other kites, known as elanine or "small" kites and cosmopolitan in distribution, are supremely aerial, active hunters that generally alternate their primary food between insects and small mammals. One species allied with the latter kite group, the bat hawk (Macheiramphus alcinus), has come to specialize in hunting bats.[39]
"Eagles" are several raptors that are not necessarily closely related, but can be broadly defined by large body size (larger than other raptors, excluding vultures) and the taking of typically larger prey, including mid-sized mammals and larger birds. The most diverse group of eagles is the "booted eagles", a variable group of about 38 species defined by their feathering covering their legs (shared by only a couple of buteonine species).
Most accipitrids usually hunt prey smaller than themselves. However, many accipitrids of almost all sizes have been recorded as capturing and then flying with prey of equal weight or even slightly heavier than themselves in their talons, a feat that requires great strength. Occasionally, an eagle or other raptor that kills prey considerably heavier than itself (too heavy for the raptor to carry and fly with) will then have to leave prey at the site of the kill and later return repeatedly to feed or dismember and bring to a perch or nest piece by piece. This has the advantage of providing a surplus of food but has the disadvantage of potentially attracting scavengers or other predators which can steal the kill or even attack the feeding accipitrid. Using this method, accipitrids such as the
The Haliaeetus eagles and the osprey (Pandion haliaetus) mainly prefer to prey on fish, which comprising more than 90% of food for the osprey and some fish eagles. These large acciptrids may supplement their diets with aquatic animals other than fish, especially sea eagles, which also hunt large numbers of water birds and are expert kleptoparasites.
Reptiles and amphibians are hunted by almost all variety of acciptrids when the opportunity arises and may be favored over other prey by some eagles, i.e.
Reproductive biology and populations
In terms of their reproductive biology and socio-sexual behavior, accipitrids share many characteristics with other extant groups of birds that appear not be directly related, but all of which have evolved to become active predators of other warm-blooded creatures. Some of the characteristics shared with these other groups, including falcons, owls, skuas and shrikes, are sexual dimorphism in size, with the female typically larger than the male; extreme devotion of breeding pairs to each other or to a dedicated nesting site; strict and often ferocious territorial behavior; and, on hatching, occasional competition amongst nestlings, including regular siblicide in several species.
Before the onset of the nesting season, adult accipitrids often devote a majority of their time to excluding other members of their own species and even of other species from their nesting territories. In several species, this occurs by territorial display flights over the border of their breeding ranges. In several forest dwelling varieties, however, vocalizations are used to establish territories. Due to the density of the habitat, display flights are apparently impractical.
While a single devoted breeding pair is considered typical, research has revealed that in varied accipitrids, multiple birds engaging in nesting behavior is more commonly than previously thought. Some harriers have evolved to become polygynous, with a single smaller male breeding with and then helping multiple females raise young.[43] The most extreme known species of accipitrid in terms of sociality is the Harris's hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus), which up to seven fully-grown birds may hunt, nest and brood cooperatively, with the extra birds typically being prior years' offspring of the breeding pair.[44][45]
Unlike the other two larger groups of raptorial birds, the owls and most falcons, accipitrids typically build their own nest. Nest sites are typically in relatively secure places, such as the crook of a large tree or an ample cliff ledge, and can vary in elevation from the flat ground of prairies or steppe to near the peaks of the tallest mountains. Accipitrids will readily return to use a nest site repeatedly, which has resulted in several of the largest bird's nests known, as a single nest may see decades of use, with more material added each breeding season. The single largest known tree nest known for any animal, belonging to a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), was found to be 6.1 m (20 ft) deep and 2.9 meters (9.5 ft) across, and to weigh 3 short tons (2.7 metric tons).[46] Some species, especially eagles, will build multiple nests for use in alternating years. Although they usually use nests they build themselves, accipitrids sometimes use abandoned nests build by other animals or pirate nests from other birds, typically other types of accipitrid.
Compared to most other types of birds, the stretch from egg-laying to independence in young birds is prolonged. In accipitrids, the breeding season ranges from about two to three months to roughly a year and a half, the latter in some of the larger tropical eagles. Species inhabiting temperate ranges as a rule have shorter breeding seasons due to the shorter stretches of warm weather that facilitates ready capture of prey.
Usually from 2 to 6 eggs are laid in accipitrids, a relatively small clutch, and some species may lay only one egg. In almost all accipitrids, eggs are laid at intervals rather than all at once and in some larger species the intervals can be several days. This results in one of the hatchlings being larger and more advanced in development than its siblings. The benefits of siblicide, which is at least occasionally recorded in many species and almost always occurs in some, such as tropical members of the booted eagle group, is that the smaller siblings are a kind of insurance policy that if the oldest, strongest nestling dies, one of the smaller siblings may take its place. In most species that have displayed siblicide, times of food plenty may result in two or more the nestlings being successfully raised to fledging.
In most accipitrids, the smaller males typically obtain food both for the incubating and brooding female and the nestlings. Males, however, occasionally take a shift incubating or even more sporadically brooding the nestlings, which allows the female to hunt. Most accipitrids feed their nestlings strips of meat or whole prey items, but most
Fledging often takes considerable effort for young birds and may take several weeks as opposed to days in many other types of birds. Once independent of their parents, young accipitrids often most wander for considerable stretches of time, ranging from 1 to 5 years, before they attain maturity. Most accipitrids have distinct plumages in their immature stage, which presumably serves as a visual cue to others of their species and may allow them to avoid territorial fights. Shortly after attaining mature plumages, pairs form, with a male typically displaying, often in flight but sometimes vocally, to win over a female. Many accipitrids breed with the same mate for several years or for life, although this is not the case for all species and, if a mate dies, the widowed bird will typically try to find another mate the next breeding season.[25][47]
Footnotes
- S2CID 243569467.
- ^ "Catalogue of Life". Archived from the original on 2016-08-10. Retrieved 2016-06-19.
- ^ de Boer 1975.
- ^ Amaral & Jorge 2003.
- ^ Federico et al. 2005.
- ^ Nanda et al. 2006. "The karyotypes of most birds consist of a small number of macrochromosomes and numerous microchromosomes. Intriguingly, most accipitrids which include hawks, eagles, kites, and Old World vultures (Falconiformes) show a sharp contrast to this basic avian karyotype. They exhibit strikingly few microchromosomes and appear to have been drastically restructured during evolution."
- ^ Wink, Heidrich & Fentzloff 1996.
- ^ ISBN 978-3-319-73745-4.
- ^ .
- ISSN 2625-8498.
- Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (August 2022). "Hoatzin, New World vultures, Secretarybird, raptors". IOC World Bird List Version 12.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 5 December 2022.
- ^ Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International (2022). "Handbook of the Birds of the World and BirdLife International digital checklist of the birds of the world". BirdLife International. 7. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
- PMID 33030604.
- .
- ^ Tarsometatarsus of a bird the size of a Eurasian sparrowhawk: Smith 2003.
- Museum of New Zealand S42490, S42811: Distal left tibiotarsus and distal right ulna of a bird the size of a smallish eagle: Worthy et al. 2007.
- ^ Distal tibia quite similar to Harris's hawk: Miller 1931.
- ^ Alcover 1989.
- ^ Wetmore 1934.
- ^ "AMNH FR 2941 specimen information". American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). 2007. Archived from the original on 13 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- ^ Simpson, G.G. (1946). "Fossil penguins" (PDF). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 81. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- ^ Olson 1985.
- ^ Brathwaite 1992.
- ISBN 978-0253340344
- ^ a b c d e f Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001.
- ^ Paton, Messina & Griffin 1994.
- ^ a b c Thiollay 1994.
- ^ Negro 2008.
- ^ Ward et al. 2008.
- ISBN 978-0-19-026408-6, retrieved 2023-06-12
- S2CID 4233018.
- S2CID 20680520.
- .
- ISBN 978-0-8747-4538-2.
- ^ Amadon, D. (1949). "Notes on Harpyhaliaetus." The Auk 53-56.
- ^ Lerner & Mindell 2005.
- ^ Although not the entire diet. Thomson & Moreau 1957.
- ^ Shiu et al. 2006.
- ^ Mikula, P., Morelli, F., Lučan, R. K., Jones, D. N., & Tryjanowski, P. (2016). "Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective." Mammal Review.
- ISBN 978-1-4081-1420-9.
- ^ Steyn, P. (1980). "Breeding and food of the bateleur in Zimbabwe (Rhodesia)." Ostrich 51(3); 168-178.
- .
- ^ Korpimäki 1988.
- ^ Bednarz, J. C. (1987). "Pair and group reproductive success, polyandry, and cooperative breeding in Harris' Hawks." The Auk 393-404.
- ^ Bednarz, J. C., & Ligon, J. D. (1988). "A study of the ecological bases of cooperative breeding in the Harris' Hawk." Ecology 1176-1187.
- ^ Erickson, L. (2007). "Bald Eagle, About Bald Eagle Nests". Journey North. Archived from the original on 2012-08-30. Retrieved 2014-09-30.
- ISBN 978-1-555-21472-2.
See also
- List of Accipitriformes
References
- Alcover, Josep Antoni (1989). "Les Aus fòssils de la Cova de Ca Na Reia ["The fossil birds of Ca Na Reia cave"]" (pdf). Endins (in Catalan) (14–15): 95–100. OCLC 41447612. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- Amaral, Karina Felipe; Jorge, Wilham (2003). "The chromosomes of the Order Falconiformes: a review" (PDF). Ararajuba. 11 (1): 65–73. OCLC 23686049. Archived from the original(PDF) on 14 April 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- Brathwaite, D. H. (1992). "Notes on the weight, flying ability, habitat, and prey of Haast's Eagle (Harpagornis moorei)" (PDF). Notornis. 39 (4): 239–247. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- Cracraft, Joel (1969). "Notes on fossil hawks (Accipitridae)" (PDF). JSTOR 4083514. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- de Boer, L. E. M. (1975). "Karyological heterogeneity in the Falconiformes (aves)". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 31 (10): 1138–1139. PMID 1204722.
- del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J., eds. (1994). ISBN 84-87334-15-6.
- Thiollay, J. M. "Family Accipitridae (Hawks and Eagles)". In del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal (1994).
- Federico, Concetta; Cantarella, Catia Daniela; Scavo, Cinzia; Saccone, Salvatore; Bed'hom, Bertrand; Bernardi, Giorgio (2005). "Avian genomes: Different karyotypes but a similar distribution of the GC-richest chromosome regions at interphase". Chromosome Research. 13 (8): 785–793. S2CID 32893842.
- ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7.
- Korpimäki, E. (1988). "Factors promoting polygyny in European birds of prey—a hypothesis". Oecologia. 77 (2): 278–285. S2CID 20541834.
- Lerner, H. R. L.; Mindell, D. P. (November 2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 37 (2): 327–346. (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
- Miller, L. H. (1931). "Bird Remains from the Kern River Pliocene of California" (PDF). JSTOR 1363312. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- Nanda, I.; Karl, E.; Volobouev, V.; Griffin, D.K.; Schartl, M.; Schmid, M. (2006). "Extensive gross genomic rearrangements between chicken and Old World vultures (Falconiformes: Accipitridae)". S2CID 25441181.
- Negro, J. J. (2008). "Two aberrant serpent-eagles may be visual mimics of bird-eating raptors". Ibis. 150 (2): 307–314. hdl:10261/34063.
- Olson, S. L. (1985). "Faunal Turnover in South American Fossil Avifaunas: The Insufficiencies of the Fossil Record" (PDF). Evolution. 39 (5): 1174–1177. (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- Paton, P. W. C.; Messina, F. J.; Griffin, C. R. (1994). "A Phylogenetic Approach to Reversed Size Dimorphism in Diurnal Raptors". Oikos. 71 (3): 492–498. JSTOR 3545837.
- Shiu, H. J.; Tokita, K. I.; Morishita, E.; Hiraoka, E.; Wu, Y.; Nakamura, H.; Higuchi, H. (2006). "Route and site fidelity of two migratory raptors: Grey-faced Buzzards Butastur indicus and Honey-buzzards Pernis apivorus". Ornithological Science. 5 (2): 151–156. .
- Smith, Richard (2003). "Les vertébrés terrestres de l'Oligocène inférieur de Belgique (Formation de Borgloon, MP 21): inventaire et interprétation des données actuelles. [Early Oligocene terrestrial vertebrates from Belgium (Borgloon Formation, MP 21): catalog and interpretation of recent data.]" (PDF). Coloquios de Paleontología (in French). E1: 647–657. (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- Thomson, A. L.; Moreau, R. E. (1957). "Feeding Habits of the Palm-Nut Vulture Gypoheerax". Ibis. 99 (4): 608–613. .
- Ward, J.; McCafferty, D.; Houston, D.; Ruxton, G. (2008). "Why do vultures have bald heads? The role of postural adjustment and bare skin areas in thermoregulation". Journal of Thermal Biology. 33 (3): 168–173. .
- Wetmore, Alexander (1934). "Fossil birds from Mongolia and China" (PDF). American Museum Novitates (711): 1–16. Retrieved 2011-05-26.
- Wink, M.; Heidrich, P.; Fentzloff, C. (1996). "A mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles (genus Haliaeetus) based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene" (PDF). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 24 (7–8): 783–791. .
- S2CID 85230857.
External links
- Accipitridae videos on the Internet Bird Collection