Adam Curle

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Adam Curle
Born
Charles Thomas William Curle

(1916-07-04)4 July 1916
L'Isle-Adam, Val-d'Oise, France
Died28 September 2006(2006-09-28) (aged 90)
London, England
NationalityBritish
Spouses
Pamela Hobson
​
​
(m. 1939, divorced)​
Anne Edie
​
(m. 1958)​
Parent(s)
Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, University of Oxford, University of Exeter, University of Ghana, Harvard University, University of Bradford (Department of Peace Studies)
Notable worksEducational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963), Making Peace (1971)
InfluencedJohn Paul Lederach

Charles Thomas William Curle

Quaker contingent during the Nigerian Civil War
of 1967–70.

Early life and education

Charles Thomas William Curle was born in

née Fisher), whose siblings included the historian H. A. L. Fisher, the cricketer and academic Charles Dennis Fisher, the naval officer William Wordsworth Fisher, the banker Edwin Fisher, and Adeline Vaughan Williams, the wife of the composer Ralph Vaughan Williams.[1] Their other relatives included the historian Frederic William Maitland, the photographer Julia Margaret Cameron, the author Virginia Woolf and the painter Vanessa Bell.[2] He was named after three of his mother's brothers, and took the name Adam, after his birthplace, after returning to France in 1919.[1][2]

He grew up in Wheatfield, Oxfordshire, where he developed an affection for animals and a sensitivity to landscape.[1] Richard Curle was not a frequent presence in his son's childhood;[1] Adam did not meet his father until he was three years old.[3] Curle later described how they became closer in Richard's later life, however, "on a man-to-man basis," having "somehow missed the father–son phase".[4] Curle attributed his pacifism to the influence of his mother, who lost three of her brothers to war and instilled a hatred of war in her son.[2] Woodhouse argued that Curle's mother was also responsible for the "self-confidence which was to enable him later to make a series of unconventional moves at critical turning points in his life".[5] His "inclination to kick against convention", however, was identified by Woodhouse as closer to that of Richard Curle.[6]

Curle attended

Sahara Desert on field trips.[1]

Career

Britain and Pakistan

Curle served in the British Army for six years during

prisoners of war in returning to their communities and the relationship between individual and community.[12]

In 1947 Curle took up a position at the

Tavistock Institute of Human Relations, where he researched rural decay in South West England.[1][12] This work led to his appointment, in 1950, as a lecturer in social psychology at the University of Oxford.[12] While at Oxford in the early 1950s he developed an interest in the connections between social psychology and education policy.[8] While he remained interested in the social psychiatry approach that Tavistock Institute emphasised, he also came to believe in the necessity of education for individuals' psychological stability and positive relationships with others, and published several articles on education policy.[12] His work at Oxford led to his appointment in 1952 to the Chair in Education and Psychology at the University of Exeter, where he remained until 1956.[12]

While at Exeter he became involved in a project focused on development in Europe, and his work took on an international dimension.

Pashtun and Kho peoples.[16] He would later frequently refer to his experiences in Pakistan in his lectures and books.[1]

Ghana and Harvard

In 1959 Curle was appointed Professor of Education at the

Quaker, which, like his pacifism, he attributed to his mother's influence.[2] He also travelled widely in Africa during this time,[15] and advised the Ghanaian government on education and development.[7] His inaugural lecture, entitled The Role of Education in Developing Societies, was published in 1961.[15] He resigned from the University in 1961, having reached the conclusion that the institution, which was then predominantly white, was "out of place" in a political context marked by the growth of African nationalism.[1] That year he travelled to South Africa with the intention of establishing a college for Black Africans, but was arrested.[1]

Also in 1961 he was appointed director of

United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East.[7]

Indo-Pakistani War

Curle visited India and Pakistan as part of a Quaker contingent in the wake of the

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.[17] The team's roles included gathering information, facilitating communication between the Indian and Pakistani sides, offering assessments of the situation, and proposing possible measures for achieving peace.[18] Curle was selected for the role due to his knowledge and experience of Pakistan.[19] His role involved presenting the case for conciliation to the younger people involved in the conflict and those sceptical of possibilities for peace.[20] The Quakers played only a minor role in maintaining peace in India and Pakistan and did not facilitate a breakthrough in relations, but did help to maintain the less tense relations that had developed.[21] Their report described the history of Quaker activity in the region, outlined Indian and Pakistani viewpoints, and described their own work, and concluded that the onus was on India to take conciliatory measures towards Pakistan.[22]

Nigerian Civil War

Known by this time for his work in the fields of

Republic of Biafra.[26] In early 1968 Curle and Volkmar hosted initial informal talks and met with Yakubu Gowon.[27]

In March 1967 Curle and Martin visited Biafra, where they met with

relief operations.[34]

Curle, Volkmar and Martin embarked on another series of trips in September and October 1968.

Kale Williams.[39] In London, Curle and Williams met with Smith and a Biafran representative to discuss issues including the possibility of the Commonwealth Secretariat again becoming involved in negotiations.[40] In January 1970, however, the war ended with the Biafrans' surrender.[41] Curle and Volkmar rejoined Williams on Nigeria days after the surrender, in order to observe the post-war climate and offer conciliation.[42]

C. H. Mike Yarrow, in his study of Quaker reconciliation efforts, argues that the personal qualities and personalities of the Quaker contingent played a pivotal role in their success in building connections with Nigerian and Biafran leaders, though from mid-1968 Yarrow argues the Quaker organisation and the faith it engendered came to play a similar role.[43] While Yarrow argues their listening process was a success, he describes their effectiveness at changing the parties' perceptions of one another in more ambivalent terms.[44] In concluding, Yarrow argued that while the negotiated peace the Quakers sought was not achieved, Yarrow argues that "the peace terms resulting after the military solution were imbued with the spirit of conciliation."[45]

Curle's experiences of the Indo–Pakistani and Nigerian conflicts contributed to his interest in the causes of war and informed his research on the relationships between violence, social transformation, and the goals of development.

underdeveloped world".[1]

Professor of Peace Studies

In 1973 Curle became the United Kingdom's first Professor of

Soviet dissident; David Bleakley, a former Minister of Community Relations in the Government of Northern Ireland; Michael Harbottle, a former chief of staff of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus; Uri Davis, who had been involved in peacemaking among Jews and Arabs in the Middle East; Vithal Rajan, a Gandhian who had worked in India; Nigel Young, a political scientist formerly based at the University of Birmingham; and Tom Woodhouse, who became Curle's research assistant.[50]

While at Bradford, Curle contributed to the development of peace studies and drew on his own experiences of mediation.

causes of war, which he identified as injustice and inequality.[1] Departments of peace studies, he argued, should thus seek to create fair, just and open societies that would not foster the resentments that ultimately lead to war.[1] Accordingly, he sought to operate his department in a democratic, participatory and non-hierarchical manner, and saw his own role as that of a co-ordinator rather than a leader.[1][51]

Retirement

Towards the end of his tenure at Bradford, Curle began to feel the need to return to more direct involvement in international reconciliation, and so left the university in 1978, after five years.

Quaker Peace and Service as a mediator in Pakistan, Zimbabwe, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, the Balkans and elsewhere.[1] In 1983 a proposal formulated by Curle and others to assess the teaching of conflict resolution in schools was taken up by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe as part of a plan to ensure compulsory education contain a focus on non-violent behaviour.[54]

Curle and his wife Anne visited the

aid workers to respond to the needs of communities and encouraged dialogue to discern what those needs were.[56] As part of this emphasis, in 1996 he convened a workshop to explore ways to mitigate the effects of the war on Županja's children.[57] A further workshop in 1997 sought to explore ways to develop a culture of non-violence and to facilitate reintegration as refugees returned to their homes.[58] Barbara Mitchels has argued that these workshops combined peacemaking with aspects of counselling.[59] Curle continued to visit Županja into the 2000s.[58]

In his later years he was also influenced by

Gandhi International Peace Award.[1]

Thought

Overview

In the 1960s Curle published work on education and development that reflected conventional views about the relationship between economic

developed countries.[62] Curle's turn to peace studies was the result of these experiences, which instilled a desire to understand the causes of conflict.[63]

Peace studies

In his work in peace studies, Curle developed an approach in which peace has both negative dimensions, relating to the prevention of violence, and positive dimensions, relating to the fulfilment of human needs and the freeing of human potential.[64] Curle viewed peace in terms of human development rather than in terms of organisations or rules that would enforce peace.[65][46] Finding the word "conflict" to be too ambiguous, Curle preferred to speak of "peaceful" and "unpeaceful" relationships, defining the former as relationships in which "the various parties did each other more good than harm", and the latter as those "doing more harm than good" to those involved.[66] The development of peaceful relationships, rather than the containment of conflict, was at the core of Curle's conception of peace.[63] While other peace researchers have tended to analyse social, political, and military systems, Curle's work focused on the values and attitudes of individuals within those systems.[63] Curle played an important role in the emergence of peace studies as a separate field from international relations, and in the incorporation of insights from psychology, especially humanistic psychology, into the field.[67] Curle's work also addressed the problems of occupational burnout and apathy among peace studies scholars and practitioners.[68]

Curle saw peace studies as an

Inner Light as a force in each human akin to a universal mind.[72] Drawing on Buddhist philosophy, he argued that the three poisons (ignorance, greed and hatred) caused social alienation and formed the basis of most violence.[73] Drawing on Vajrayana and Quakerism, he viewed all living things as connected, and believed that every human action has effects on humans' environment.[74] He also emphasised the artistic and creative aspects of peacemaking and of writing on the subject.[75]

Mediation and reconciliation

Mediation was, in Curle's view, the foremost tool of peacemaking.[65] Its purpose, in Curle's account, was to eliminate misperceptions between parties in conflict and to allay violent emotions.[76] Curle's proposed mediation process has four parts: first, mediators develop and improve communications; second, they provide information to, and between, the parties; third, they "befriend" the parties; and fourth, they encourage a willingness to engage in negotiations.[76] Curle criticised "top down" forms of mediation as ineffectual, though, and argued mediation ought to be accompanied by the transformation of attitudes and of economic and social conditions.[13] He saw this form of mediation as applicable on conflicts at all scales, from wars between nations to disputes within families.[77] His theory of mediation draws on Quaker practices, on humanistic psychology, and on his own experiences in the field.[78] It is distinct from John Burton's approach to conflict resolution, but shares with Burton several commitments: both saw the role of the mediator as one of structuring discussions and providing information, both thought mediation involved exploring and analysing the conflict in question, both used psychological principles to mitigate against misperceptions and misunderstandings, and both envisioned new understandings resulting that feed into the development of policy.[79]

In his later works, published in the 1990s and 2000s, Curle continued to revise his theory of reconciliation and its role in peacemaking.

peace treaties by elites, but rather ought to empower communities affected by war to construct peace "from below".[13]

Works

Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963)

Main article: Educational Strategy for Developing Societies

Curle's Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963) is a review of the role of education in economic growth and social and political transformation.[81]

Planning for Education in Pakistan (1966)

Planning for Education in Pakistan: A Personal Case Study (1966) is an account of Curle's experiences as an advisor to the Planning Commission of Pakistan in 1963 and 1964.[82] In it, he assesses problems with education in Pakistan and discusses the role of foreign advisors to governments.[83] Drawing on his experiences with the Planning Commission and with educational bodies, Curle shows significant differences between East Pakistan and West Pakistan in education and literacy.[84] Curle presents those involved in educational planning as complex, conflicted figures rather than aloof arbiters of objective facts.[82]

Richard S. Wheeler, reviewing the book in The Journal of Asian Studies, described Curle's assessment of Pakistan's educational problems as "authoritative" and the insight provided into the role of foreign advisors as "rewarding".[83] J. A. Keats and Daphne M. Keats, writing in the Australian Journal of Education, characterised the book as "an unusual and in some ways courageous approach to a serious examination of the problems of educational planning in a newly developing country", but argued that Curle's subjective approach was not wholly successful and queried the omission of certain important individuals from his account.[85] Keats and Keats concluded that while Curle "has succeeded in showing the interaction between persons and action, he has achieved this at the expense of an objectivity which might well have led to an even more valuable exposition."[86]

Educational Problems of Developing Societies (1969)

Educational Problems of Developing Societies: With Case Studies of Ghana, Pakistan, and Nigeria was first published in 1969, then in a revised and expanded edition in 1973.

social psychological terms.[90] Drawing on his experiences in Pakistan, he argues that development requires flexibility and an appreciation of cultural differences, and that solely economic approaches to development risk fomenting conflict.[91]

Woodhouse describes the book as the best illustration of "the progress of Curle's intellectual development toward the distinct field of peace research".[87] Philip Foster, in his review in the International Journal of Comparative Sociology, argued that the essays show only limited awareness of broader debates in the field, and questioned Curle's methodology in some of the essays, but concluded "that the good far outweighs the less than satisfactory."[92] Joseph Kivlin, meanwhile, reviewing the book in Social Forces, argued that it "does not contribute much that is new to the understanding" of developing societies' educational problems, and noted that several of its chapters are only tangentially connected to the topic of education.[89]

Making Peace (1971)

Main article: Making Peace

Curle's Making Peace (1971) applies ideas from peace studies to his own experiences, explores the definition of peacemaking and considers what constitute peaceful and non-peaceful relationships and what cause them.[13][63][93]

Education for Liberation (1973)

Curle's Education for Liberation was published in 1973.[71] Drawing on his personal experiences and responding to the educational environment of the 1970s, and dealing with similar topics to Making Peace, Curle considers how education can contribute to the achievement of peace and social change.[94] More so than in his previous works, Curle is critical of existing forms of education, which he sees as contributing to authoritarianism, social hierarchy and economic materialism.[94] He identifies this as especially problematic in developing countries, where education is "attuned to the competitive and materialistic ideologies of the rich nations".[95] The book was strongly influenced by Paulo Freire's thought,[71] and contains an appendix contrasting Curle's views with those of B. F. Skinner.[95]

Richard D'Aeth, reviewing the book in the British Journal of Educational Studies, described Curle's analysis as "humane and warmly personal" and the book as "a pleasure to study, despite its pessimism".[96] In his review in the British Journal of Educational Psychology, Ken Pease expressed enthusiasm for the book but argued its use of the concept of awareness was too insubstantial to form "the cornerstone of an educational system".[95]

The Fragile Voice of Love (2006)

Curle's final book, The Fragile Voice of Love (2006), was published shortly before he died.

globalisation, which he argues is driven by the desire for power and profit.[97] Reviewing the book in Peace and Conflict, William H. Long described the book as "straight from the heart", and suggested "like your grandfather's advice, it's best to pay it some mind."[98]

Other works

Mystics and Militants: A Study of Awareness, Identity and Social Action (1972) deals with similar themes to Making Peace and examines the personal beliefs, qualities and skills of peace makers.[63] It also considers the psychological aspects of social action, social awareness and identity,[13] and the inner and outer, or private and public, aspects of peacemaking.[99] Curle's interest in the concepts of awareness and identity was based on his observation of people in conflict situations.[100] Like Making Peace, Mystics and Militants contributed to Curle's reputation as an influential figure in the field of peace research.[101] Both books contributed to the emergence of peace studies.[63]

Peacemaking Public and Private (1978) continued to explore the question of the inner and outer aspects of peacemaking first taken up in Mystics and Militants.[99]

True Justice (1981) draws on Quaker theology and Curle's own experiences as a peacemaker, and focuses on personal solutions rather than structural ones.[99][102] It explores the question of human nature in relation to religion,[76] and continues to consider public and private levels of peacemaking.[99] Curle argues here that feelings of hatred, anger, jealousy and the like are not unchangeable features of any individual, but rather the result of failures to understand and develop their own potential.[77] Michael Hare Duke, in his review for the New Internationalist, acknowledged the importance of the interpersonal phenomena on which Curle focuses, but argued that the book lacked "a clear recognition of the economic realities which lie behind any justice in the distribution of the world's resources."[102]

In the Middle (1986) argues for the importance of mediation and reconciliation in both peace research and peacemaking practice.

nonviolent opposition to violent and oppressive regimes, and the achievement of reconciliation between conflicting parties, including through mediation.[104] In concluding, Curle proposes the creation of an international organisation within the United Nations dedicated to mediation, which would conduct research and provide mediation, training and resources.[105]

Tools for Transformation (1990), like Making Peace and Mystics and Militants, frames conflict as a dynamic force capable of effecting changes in individuals and social structures.[13] Barbara Mitchels and Tom Woodhouse argue that this perspective influenced the development of peace studies by providing a holistic account of conflict that goes beyond merely ending or preventing wars.[13] In To Tame the Hydra (1999), Curle describes a global situation in which violence, successfully subdued, immediately flares up elsewhere, akin to the Hydra, a mythological monster which grew a new head each time one was cut off.[11] Curle saw these outbreaks of violence as fuelled by the pursuit of money and power, and argued for the continuing necessity of peacemaking techniques.[11]

Curle also wrote poetry and fiction.[1] His collection Recognition and Reality: Reflections & Prose Poems was published in 1987.[7] Norbert Koppensteiner described the volume as "a poetic transrationality."[75] His poem "Indra's Net" (1999), named for the metaphor used in Buddhist philosophy, reflects on the ideas of human interconnection that also formed part of his work on peace.[74][75]

Personal life

Curle married Pamela Hobson in 1939.[2] They had two daughters and divorced after the end of Curle's military service.[2][60] In 1958 he married Anne Edie, a New Zealander who he had met in Dhaka during his travels.[2] They had one daughter.[2] Later in life he lived with Anne in London.[66]

Death and legacy

Curle died from

acute leukaemia on 28 September 2006 in Wimbledon, London.[53][106]

Barbara Mitchels' study of Curle, Love in Danger, was published in 2006.[75] It was followed in 2016 by Adam Curle: Radical Peacemaker, a collection of Curle's writings edited by Tom Woodhouse and John Paul Lederach.[75][107][108]

In a 2003 article Mitchels described Curle as "one of the pioneers of the academic study of peace".[10] In his obituary in The Guardian, Tom Woodhouse wrote that "the legitimacy and growth of peace studies" would be Curle's "greatest and enduring legacy".[2] Mitchels and Woodhouse argue Curle's works "were instrumental in establishing the legitimacy of peace studies in universities worldwide and in advancing the scholarly agenda of peace research."[13] Lederach described Curle as "a beacon of orientation" for his own work and "one of the most important influences relevant to many of our contemporary debates" in peace studies.[109]

List of works

  • The Role of Education in Developing Societies (1961)
  • Educational Strategy for Developing Societies (1963), expanded and updated edition 1973
  • Planning for Education in Pakistan: A Personal Case Study (1966)
  • Educational Problems of Developing Societies: With Case Studies of Ghana, Pakistan, and Nigeria (1969) revised and expanded edition 1973
  • Making Peace (1971)
  • Mystics and Militants: A Study of Awareness, Identity and Social Action (1972)
  • Education for Liberation (1973)
  • Peacemaking Public and Private (1978)
  • Preparation for Peace (1980)
  • True Justice (1981)
  • Recognition and Reality: Reflections & Prose Poems (1987)
  • Tools for Transformation: A Personal Study (1990)
  • To Tame the Hydra: Undermining the Culture of Violence (1995)
  • In the Middle: Non-Official Mediation in Violent Situations (1986)
  • Peacemaking: The Middle Way (1992)
  • Another Way: Positive Responses to Contemporary Violence (1995)
  • The Fragile Voice of Love (2006)
  • Adam Curle: Radical Peacemaker (2016)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad "Adam Curle Archive" n.d.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Woodhouse 2006.
  3. ^ Curle 1975, p. 12.
  4. ^ Curle 1975, p. 13.
  5. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, p. 30.
  6. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, pp. 30–1.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h "Adam Curle" 2006.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Woodhouse 2010, p. 2.
  9. ^ a b Woodhouse 1991b, p. 31.
  10. ^ a b Mitchels 2003, p. 403.
  11. ^ a b c d Mitchels 2003, p. 407.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Woodhouse 1991b, p. 33.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Mitchels & Woodhouse 2010.
  14. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, pp. 33–4.
  15. ^ a b c d Woodhouse 1991b, p. 34.
  16. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, pp. 34, 36.
  17. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 164.
  18. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 170.
  19. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 158–9, 162.
  20. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 168.
  21. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 175.
  22. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 176.
  23. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 179.
  24. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 189.
  25. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 190.
  26. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 190–1.
  27. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 193–7.
  28. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 198–200.
  29. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 204.
  30. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 206, 255–6.
  31. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 256.
  32. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 206–7.
  33. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 208.
  34. ^ a b Yarrow 1978, p. 211.
  35. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 213.
  36. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 213–4.
  37. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 214–6.
  38. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 221–2.
  39. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 231.
  40. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 235.
  41. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 238.
  42. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 243.
  43. ^ Yarrow 1978, pp. 249–50.
  44. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 252.
  45. ^ Yarrow 1978, p. 259.
  46. ^ a b Ramsbotham, Woodhouse & Miall 2011, p. 53.
  47. ^ McKinlay 1991, p. 62.
  48. ^ McKinlay 1991, p. 63.
  49. ^ McKinlay 1991, p. 65.
  50. ^ McKinlay 1991, pp. 65–6.
  51. ^ McKinlay 1991, pp. 66, 68–9.
  52. ^ McKinlay 1991, p. 69.
  53. ^ a b c d e Woodhouse 2010, p. 6.
  54. ^ Pettigrew 1991, pp. 242–3.
  55. ^ a b c Mitchels 2003, p. 409.
  56. ^ a b Mitchels 2003, p. 410.
  57. ^ Mitchels 2003, p. 411.
  58. ^ a b Mitchels 2003, p. 414.
  59. ^ Mitchels 2003, p. 415.
  60. ^ a b Boulton 2007, p. 87.
  61. ^ Woodhouse 2010, pp. 2–3.
  62. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, p. 39.
  63. ^ a b c d e f g Woodhouse 2010, p. 3.
  64. ^ Woodhouse 2010, p. 1.
  65. ^ a b c d Woodhouse 2010, p. 4.
  66. ^ a b Mitchels 2003, p. 404.
  67. ^ Koppensteiner 2020, pp. 19–20.
  68. ^ Lederach 2014, p. 4.
  69. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, pp. 44–5.
  70. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, pp. 43, 44.
  71. ^ a b c Ramsbotham, Woodhouse & Miall 2011, p. 238.
  72. ^ Koppensteiner 2020, p. 181.
  73. ^ Mitchels 2003, p. 405.
  74. ^ a b Mitchels 2003, p. 408.
  75. ^ a b c d e Koppensteiner 2020, p. 20.
  76. ^ a b c Woodhouse 2010, p. 5.
  77. ^ a b Woodhouse 1991b, p. 50.
  78. ^ a b Ramsbotham, Woodhouse & Miall 2011, p. 54.
  79. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, pp. 53, 54–5.
  80. ^ a b Ramsbotham, Woodhouse & Miall 2011, p. 235.
  81. ^ Gwilliam 1964, p. 76.
  82. ^ a b Keats & Keats 1968, p. 208.
  83. ^ a b Wheeler 1966, p. 141.
  84. ^ Wheeler 1966, p. 142.
  85. ^ Keats & Keats 1968, pp. 208–9.
  86. ^ Keats & Keats 1968, p. 210.
  87. ^ a b Woodhouse 1991b, p. 37.
  88. ^ Foster 1972, p. 226.
  89. ^ a b Kivlin 1971, p. 282.
  90. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, p. 38.
  91. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, pp. 38–9.
  92. ^ Foster 1972, pp. 226–7.
  93. ^ Adams 1973, p. 428.
  94. ^ a b D'Aeth 1974, p. 215.
  95. ^ a b c Pease 1975, p. 92.
  96. ^ D'Aeth 1974, pp. 215–6.
  97. ^ a b c Long 2007, p. 129.
  98. ^ Long 2007, pp. 129–30.
  99. ^ a b c d Woodhouse 1991b, p. 43.
  100. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, p. 44.
  101. ^ Woodhouse 1991b, p. 40.
  102. ^ a b Hare Duke 1982.
  103. ^ Ramsbotham, Woodhouse & Miall 2011, pp. 53–4.
  104. ^ Woodhouse 1991a, p. 49.
  105. ^ Woodhouse 1991a, p. 56.
  106. ^ Boulton 2007, pp. 87–8.
  107. ^ Barrett 2017.
  108. ^ Randle 2017.
  109. ^ Lederach 2014, p. 2.

Sources

Further reading

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