Adam Mickiewicz

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Adam Mickiewicz
Mickiewicz, c. 1842
Mickiewicz, c. 1842
BornAdam Bernard Mickiewicz
(1798-12-24)24 December 1798
Zaosie, Lithuania Governorate, Russian Empire
Died26 November 1855(1855-11-26) (aged 56)
Istanbul, Ottoman Empire
Resting placeWawel Cathedral, Kraków
Occupation
  • Poet
  • dramatist
  • essayist
  • professor of literature
LanguagePolish
GenreRomanticism
Notable worksPan Tadeusz
Dziady
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1834; died 1855)​
Children6
Signature

Adam Bernard Mickiewicz

European[7] poets and has been dubbed a "Slavic bard".[8] A leading Romantic dramatist,[9] he has been compared in Poland and Europe to Byron and Goethe.[8][9]

He is known chiefly for the poetic drama Dziady (Forefathers' Eve) and the national epic poem Pan Tadeusz. His other influential works include Konrad Wallenrod and Grażyna. All these served as inspiration for uprisings against the three imperial powers that had partitioned the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth out of existence.

Mickiewicz was born in the

Russian-partitioned territories of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which had been part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and was active in the struggle to win independence for his home region. After, as a consequence, spending five years exiled to central Russia, in 1829 he succeeded in leaving the Russian Empire and, like many of his compatriots, lived out the rest of his life abroad. He settled first in Rome, then in Paris, where for a little over three years he lectured on Slavic literature at the Collège de France. He was an activist, striving for a democratic and independent Poland. He died, probably of cholera, at Istanbul in the Ottoman Empire, where he had gone to help organize Polish forces to fight Russia in the Crimean War
.

In 1890, his remains were repatriated from Montmorency, Val-d'Oise, in France, to Wawel Cathedral in Kraków, Poland.

Life

Early years

Zaosie manor, possible birthplace
Navahrudak
, where Mickiewicz was baptized

Adam Mickiewicz was born on 24 December 1798, either at his paternal uncle's estate in

Navahrudak (in Polish, Nowogródek) or in Navahrudak itself[b] in what was then part of the Russian Empire and is now Belarus. The region was on the periphery of Lithuania proper and had been part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the Third Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1795).[12][13] Its upper class, including Mickiewicz's family, were either Polish or Polonized.[12] The poet's father, Mikołaj Mickiewicz, a lawyer, was a member of the Polish[14] nobility (szlachta)[10] and bore the hereditary Poraj coat-of-arms;[15] Adam's mother was Barbara Mickiewicz, née Majewska. Adam was the second-born son in the family.[11]

Navahrudak

Mickiewicz spent his childhood in Navahrudak,

ministry of education.[10][11][16] He was a mediocre student, although active in games, theatricals, and the like.[10]

In September 1815, Mickiewicz enrolled at the Imperial University of Vilnius, studying to be a teacher.[17] After graduating, under the terms of his government scholarship, he taught secondary school at Kaunas from 1819 to 1823.[11]

In 1818, in the Polish-language

Oda do młodości (Ode to Youth), but it was considered to be too patriotic and revolutionary for publication and would not appear officially for many years.[18]

About the summer of 1820, Mickiewicz met the love of his life, Maryla Wereszczakówna [pl]. They were unable to marry due to his family's poverty and relatively low social status; in addition, she was already engaged to Count Wawrzyniec Puttkamer [pl], whom she would marry in 1821.[18][19]

Imprisonment and exile

Princess Zinaida Volkonskaya's Moscow salon, frequented by Mickiewicz

In 1817, while still a student, Mickiewicz,

Crimean Sonnets, published a year later).[18][22][23]

Mickiewicz was welcomed into the leading literary circles of Saint Petersburg and Moscow, where he became a great favourite for his agreeable manners and an extraordinary talent for poetic improvisation.[23] The year 1828 saw the publication of his poem Konrad Wallenrod.[23] Novosiltsev, who recognized its patriotic and subversive message, which had been missed by the Moscow censors, unsuccessfully attempted to sabotage its publication and to damage Mickiewicz's reputation.[15][23]

In Moscow, Mickiewicz met the Polish journalist and novelist

Decembrist leaders including Kondraty Ryleyev.[22] It was thanks to his friendships with many influential individuals that he was eventually able to obtain a passport and permission to leave Russia for Western Europe.[23]

European travels

Adam Mickiewicz on the Ayu-Dag, by Walenty Wańkowicz, 1828

After serving five years of exile to Russia, Mickiewicz received permission to go abroad in 1829. On 1 June that year, he arrived in

Hegel.[23] In February 1830 he visited Prague, later returning to Weimar, where he received a cordial reception from the writer and polymath Goethe.[23]

He then continued on through Germany all the way to Italy, which he entered via the Alps' Splügen Pass.[23] Accompanied by an old friend, the poet Antoni Edward Odyniec, he visited Milan, Venice, Florence and Rome.[23][24] In August that same year (1830) he went to Geneva, where he met fellow Polish Bard Zygmunt Krasiński.[24] During these travels he had a brief romance with Henrietta Ewa Ankwiczówna [pl], but class differences again prevented his marrying his new love.[24]

Finally about October 1830 he took up residence in Rome, which he declared "the most amiable of foreign cities."[24] Soon after, he learned about the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising in Poland, but he would not leave Rome until the spring of 1831.[24]

On 19 April 1831 Mickiewicz departed Rome, traveling to Geneva and Paris and later, on a false passport, to Germany, via

German Poland (historically known to Poles as Wielkopolska, or Greater Poland), where he was well received by members of the local Polish nobility.[24] He had a brief liaison with Konstancja Łubieńska [pl] at her family estate[24] in Śmiełów. Starting in March 1832, Mickiewicz stayed several months in Dresden, in Saxony,[24][26] where he wrote the third part of his poem Dziady.[26]

Paris émigré

Mickiewicz, 1835

On 31 July 1832 he arrived in Paris, accompanied by a close friend and fellow ex-Philomath, the future geologist and

epic poem Pan Tadeusz.[27]

Pan Tadeusz, his longest poetic work, marked the end of his most productive literary period.[27][28] Mickiewicz would create further notable works, such as Lausanne Lyrics [pl], 1839–40) and Zdania i uwagi (Thoughts and Remarks, 1834–40), but neither would achieve the fame of his earlier works.[27] His relative literary silence, beginning in the mid-1830s, has been variously interpreted: he may have lost his talent; he may have chosen to focus on teaching and on political writing and organizing.[29]

On 22 July 1834, in Paris, he married Celina Szymanowska, daughter of composer and concert pianist

Maria Agata Szymanowska.[27] They would have six children (two daughters, Maria [pl] and Helena; and four sons, Władysław [pl], Aleksander, Jan and Józef).[27] Celina later became mentally ill, possibly with a major depressive disorder.[27] In December 1838, marital problems caused Mickiewicz to attempt suicide.[30] Celina would die on 5 March 1855.[27]

Mickiewicz and his family lived in relative poverty, their major source of income being occasional publication of his work – not a very profitable endeavor.[31] They received support from friends and patrons, but not enough to substantially change their situation.[31] Despite spending most of his remaining years in France, Mickiewicz would never receive French citizenship, nor any support from the French government.[31] By the late 1830s he was less active as a writer, and also less visible on the Polish émigré political scene.[27]

Mickiewicz

In 1838 Mickiewicz became professor of Latin literature at the Lausanne Academy, in Switzerland.[31] His lectures were well received, and in 1840 he was appointed to the newly established chair of Slavic languages and literatures at the Collège de France.[31][32] Leaving Lausanne, he was made an honorary Lausanne Academy professor.[31]

Mickiewicz would, however, hold the Collège de France post for little more than three years, his last lecture being delivered on 28 May 1844.[31] His lectures were popular, drawing many listeners in addition to enrolled students, and receiving reviews in the press.[31] Some would be remembered much later; his sixteenth lecture, on Slavic theater, "was to become a kind of gospel for Polish theater directors of the twentieth century."[33]

Adam Mickiewicz praying in front of Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn, by Piotr Stachiewicz

Over the years he became increasingly possessed by religious mysticism as he fell under the influence of the Polish philosopher Andrzej Towiański, whom he met in 1841.[31][34] His lectures became a medley of religion and politics, punctuated by controversial attacks on the Catholic Church, and thus brought him under censure by the French government.[31][34] The messianic element conflicted with Roman Catholic teachings, and some of his works were placed on the Church's list of prohibited books, though both Mickiewicz and Towiański regularly attended Catholic mass and encouraged their followers to do so.[34][35]

In 1846 Mickiewicz severed his ties with Towiański, following the rise of revolutionary sentiment in Europe, manifested in events such as the

Kraków Uprising of February 1846.[36] Mickiewicz criticized Towiański's passivity and returned to the traditional Catholic Church.[36] In 1847 Mickiewicz befriended American journalist, critic and women's-rights advocate Margaret Fuller.[37] In March 1848 he was part of a Polish delegation received in audience by Pope Pius IX, whom he asked to support the enslaved nations and the French Revolution of 1848.[36] Soon after, in April 1848, he organized a military unit, the Mickiewicz Legion, to support the insurgents, hoping to liberate the Polish and other Slavic lands.[32][36] The unit never became large enough to be more than symbolic, and in the fall of 1848 Mickiewicz returned to Paris and became more active again on the political scene.[37]

In December 1848 he was offered a post at the

Polish songs by Frédéric Chopin).[39]

Final years

Late in life

In the winter of 1849 Mickiewicz founded a French-language newspaper, La Tribune des Peuples (The Peoples' Tribune), supported by a wealthy Polish émigré activist, Ksawery Branicki [pl].[37] Mickiewicz wrote over 70 articles for the Tribune during its short existence: it came out between 15 March and 10 November 1849, when the authorities shut it down.[37][40] His articles supported democracy and socialism and many ideals of the French Revolution and of the Napoleonic era, though he held few illusions regarding the idealism of the House of Bonaparte.[37] He supported the restoration of the French Empire in 1851.[37] In April 1852 he lost his post at the Collège de France, which he had been allowed to keep up to that point (though without the right to lecture).[31][37] On 31 October 1852 he was hired as a librarian at the Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal.[37][40] There he was visited by another Polish poet, Cyprian Norwid, who wrote of the meeting in his work Czarne kwiaty. Białe kwiaty [pl]; and there Mickiewicz's wife Celina died.[37]

Mickiewicz's temporary grave under his Istanbul apartment, now an Adam Mickiewicz Museum

Mickiewicz welcomed the

Latin ode Ad Napolionem III Caesarem Augustum Ode in Bomersundum captum, honored Napoleon III and celebrated the British-French victory over Russia at the Battle of Bomarsund[37] in Åland in August 1854. Polish émigrés associated with the Hôtel Lambert persuaded him to become active again in politics.[37][41] Soon after the Crimean War broke out (October 1853), the French government entrusted him with a diplomatic mission.[41] He left Paris on 11 September 1855, arriving in Constantinople, in the Ottoman Empire, on 22 September.[41] There, working with Michał Czajkowski (Sadyk Pasha), he began organizing Polish forces to fight under Ottoman command against Russia.[40][41] With his friend Armand Lévy he also set about organizing a Jewish legion.[40][41] He returned ill from a trip to a military camp to his apartment on Yenişehir Street in the Pera (now Beyoğlu) district of Constantinople and died on 26 November 1855.[41][42] Though Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński and others have speculated that political enemies might have poisoned Mickiewicz, there is no proof of this, and he probably contracted cholera, which claimed other lives there at the time.[40][41][43]

Mickiewicz's remains were transported to France, boarding ship on 31 December 1855, and were buried at

Austrian Poland, and on 4 July entombed in the Crypts of the Bards [pl] of Kraków's Wawel Cathedral, a place of final repose for a number of persons important to Poland's political and cultural history.[41]

Works

Adam Mickiewicz Museum, Vilnius, Lithuania

Mickiewicz's childhood environment exerted a major influence on his literary work.

Crimean Sonnets, highlight the poet's ability and desire to write, and his longing for his homeland.[23]

One of his major works,

Slavic and Baltic peoples on All Souls' Day.[46] The year 1832 saw the publication of part III: much superior to the earlier parts, a "laboratory of innovative genres, styles and forms".[26] Part III was largely written over a few days; the "Great Improvisation" section, a "masterpiece of Polish poetry", is said to have been created during a single inspired night.[26] A long descriptive poem, Ustęp (Digression), accompanying part III and written sometime before it, sums up Mickiewicz's experiences in, and views on, Russia, portrays it as a huge prison, pities the oppressed Russian people, and wonders about their future.[47] Miłosz describes it as a "summation of Polish attitudes towards Russia in the nineteenth century" and notes that it inspired responses from Pushkin (The Bronze Horseman) and Joseph Conrad (Under Western Eyes).[47] The drama was first staged by Stanisław Wyspiański in 1901, becoming, in Miłosz's words, "a kind of national sacred play, occasionally forbidden by censorship because of its emotional impact upon the audience." The Polish government's 1968 closing down of a production of the play sparked the 1968 Polish political crisis.[33][48]

Mickiewicz's

narrative poem describing battles of the Christian order of Teutonic Knights against the pagans of Lithuania,[15] is a thinly veiled allusion to the long feud between Russia and Poland.[15][23] The plot involves the use of subterfuge against a stronger enemy, and the poem analyzes moral dilemmas faced by the Polish insurgents who would soon launch the November 1830 Uprising.[23] Controversial to an older generation of readers, Konrad Wallenrod was seen by the young as a call to arms and was praised as such by an Uprising leader, poet Ludwik Nabielak [pl].[15][23] Miłosz describes Konrad Wallenrod (named for its protagonist) as "the most committed politically of all Mickiewczi's poems."[49] The point of the poem, though obvious to many, escaped the Russian censors, and the poem was allowed to be published, complete with its telling motto drawn from Machiavelli: "Dovete adunque sapere come sono due generazioni di combattere – bisogna essere volpe e leone." ("Ye shall know that there are two ways of fighting – you must be a fox and a lion.")[15][23][50] On a purely literary level, the poem was notable for incorporating traditional folk elements alongside stylistic innovations.[23]

Similarly noteworthy is Mickiewicz's earlier and longer 1823 poem, Grażyna, depicting the exploits of a Lithuanian chieftainess against the Teutonic Knights.[51][52] Miłosz writes that Grażyna "combines a metallic beat of lines and syntactical rigor with a plot and motifs dear to the Romantics."[51] It is said by Christien Ostrowski to have inspired Emilia Plater, a military heroine of the November 1830 Uprising.[53] A similar message informs Mickiewicz's "Oda do młodości" ("Ode to Youth").[18]

Mickiewicz's

history of humankind in which Mickiewicz argues that history is the history of now-unrealized freedom that awaits many oppressed nations in the future.[26][27] It is followed by a longer "moral catechism" aimed at Polish émigrés.[27] The book sets out a messianist metaphor of Poland as the "Christ of nations".[54] Described by Wyka as a propaganda piece, it was relatively simple, using biblical metaphors and the like to reach less-discriminating readers.[27] It became popular not only among Poles but, in translations, among some other peoples, primarily those which lacked their own sovereign states.[27][28] The Books were influential in framing Mickiewicz's image among many not as that of a poet and author but as that of ideologue of freedom.[27]

Pan Tadeusz (Sir Thaddeus, published 1834), another of his masterpieces, is an epic poem that draws a picture of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the eve of Napoleon's 1812 invasion of Russia.[27][28] It is written entirely in thirteen-syllable couplets.[28] Originally intended as an apolitical idyll, it became, as Miłosz writes, "something unique in world literature, and the problem of how to classify it has remained the crux of a constant quarrel among scholars"; it "has been called 'the last epos' in world literature".[55] Pan Tadeusz was not highly regarded by contemporaries, nor by Mickiewicz himself, but in time it won acclaim as "the highest achievement in all Polish literature."[29]

folk songs transcribed by Mickiewicz in Lithuanian

The occasional poems that Mickiewicz wrote in his final decades have been described as "exquisite, gnomic, extremely short and concise". His Lausanne Lyrics, (1839–40) are, writes Miłosz, "untranslatable masterpieces of metaphysical meditation. In Polish literature, they are examples of that pure poetry that verges on silence."[32]

In the 1830s (as early as 1830; as late as 1837) he worked on a futurist or science-fiction work, A History of the Future [pl]. (Historia przyszłości, or L’histoire d’avenir)[26] It predicted inventions similar to radio and television, and interplanetary communication using balloons.[26] Written partially in French, it was never completed and was partly destroyed by the author.What's interesting, is that it had seven versions, and some parts of them exist to this day. [26] Other French-language works by Mickiewicz include the dramas Konfederaci barscy [pl] (The Bar Confederates) and Jacques Jasiński, ous les deux Polognes [pl] (Jacques Jasiński, or the Two Polands).[27] These would not achieve much recognition, and would not be published till 1866.[27]

Lithuanian language

Adam Mickiewicz did not write any poems in Lithuanian. However, it is known that Mickiewicz did have some understanding of the Lithuanian language, although some Polish commentators describe it as limited.[56][57][58]

In the poem

Polonized Lithuanian name Baublys.[60] Furthermore, due to Mickiewicz's position as lecturer on Lithuanian folklore and mythology in Collège de France, it can be inferred that he must have known the language sufficiently to lecture about it.[61] It is known that Adam Mickiewicz often sang Lithuanian folk songs with the Samogitian Ludmilew Korylski.[62] For example, in the early 1850s when in Paris, Mickiewicz interrupted a Lithuanian folk song sung by Ludmilew Korylski, commenting that he was singing it wrong and hence wrote down on a piece of paper how to sing the song correctly.[62] On the piece of paper, there are fragments of three different Lithuanian folk songs (Ejk Tatuszeli i bytiu darża, Atjo żałnieros par łauka, Ej warneli, jod warneli isz),[63] which are the sole, as of now, known Lithuanian writings by Adam Mickiewicz.[64] The folk songs are known to have been sung in Darbėnai.[65]

Legacy

Adam Mickiewicz Monument, Kraków, Poland
Adam Mickiewicz Monument, Warsaw, Poland
Adam Mickiewicz Monument, Lviv, Ukraine

A prime figure of the

Byron and Goethe.[8][9]

Mickiewicz's importance extends beyond literature to the broader spheres of culture and politics; Wyka writes that he was a "singer and epic poet of the Polish people and a pilgrim for the freedom of nations."

Byron, Shakespeare, Homer, and Goethe.[72] Koropeckyi writes that Mickiewicz has "informed the foundations of [many] parties and ideologies" in Poland from the 19th century to this day, "down to the rappers in Poland's post-socialist blocks, who can somehow still declare that 'if Mickiewicz was alive today, he'd be a good rapper.'"[73] While Mickiewicz's popularity has endured two centuries in Poland, he is less well known abroad, but in the 19th century he had won substantial international fame among "people that dared resist the brutal might of reactionary empires."[73]

Mickiewicz has been written about or had works dedicated to him by many authors in Poland (

University of Poznań adopted him as its official patron.[41]

Much has been written about Mickiewicz, though the vast majority of this scholarly and popular literature is available only in Polish. Works devoted to him, according to Koropeckyi, author of a 2008 English biography, "could fill a good shelf or two."[73] Koropeckyi notes that, apart from some specialist literature, only five book-length biographies of Mickiewicz have been published in English.[73] He also writes that, though many of Mickiewicz's works have been reprinted numerous times, no language has a "definitive critical edition of his works."[73]

Museums

House of Perkunas in Kaunas
, fot. Ivonna Nowicka.

A number of museums in Europe are dedicated to Mickiewicz:

Ethnicity

Lithuanian coin
featuring a stylized Mickiewicz

Adam Mickiewicz is known as a Polish poet,[78][79][80][81][82] Polish-Lithuanian,[83][84][85][86] Lithuanian,[87][88][89][90][91][92] or Belarusian.[93] The Cambridge History of Russia describes him as Polish but sees his ethnic origins as "Lithuanian-Belarusian (and perhaps Jewish)."[94]

Some sources assert that Mickiewicz's mother was descended from a converted,

Tatar (Lipka Tatars) roots.[101]

Virgil Krapauskas noted that "Lithuanians like to prove that Adam Mickiewicz was Lithuanian"

Lithuanian noble family (Rimvydas) with origins predating Lithuania's Christianization,[103] but the Lithuanian nobility in Mickiewicz's time was heavily Polonized and spoke Polish.[12] Mickiewicz had been brought up in the culture of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a multicultural state that had encompassed most of what today are the separate countries of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. To Mickiewicz, a splitting of that multicultural state into separate entities – due to trends such as Lithuanian National Revival – was undesirable,[12] if not outright unthinkable.[78] According to Romanucci-Ross, while Mickiewicz called himself a Litvin ("Lithuanian"), in his time the idea of a separate "Lithuanian identity", apart from a "Polish" one, did not exist.[82] This multicultural aspect is evident in his works: his most famous poetic work, Pan Tadeusz, begins with the Polish-language invocation, "Oh Lithuania, my homeland, thou art like health ..." ("Litwo! Ojczyzno moja! ty jesteś jak zdrowie ..."). It is generally accepted, however, that Mickiewicz, when referring to Lithuania, meant a historical region rather than a linguistic and cultural entity, and he often applied the term "Lithuanian" to the Slavic inhabitants of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[12]

Selected works

  • Oda do młodości (Ode to Youth), 1820
  • Ballady i romanse (Ballads and Romances), 1822
  • Grażyna, 1823
  • Sonety krymskie (The Crimean Sonnets), 1826
  • Konrad Wallenrod, 1828
  • Księgi narodu polskiego i pielgrzymstwa polskiego (The Books of the Polish People and of the Polish Pilgrimage), 1832
  • Pan Tadeusz (Sir Thaddeus, Mr. Thaddeus), 1834
  • Lausanne Lyrics, 1839–40
  • Dziady (Forefathers' Eve), four parts, published from 1822 to after the author's death
  • L'histoire d'avenir (A History of the Future), an unpublished French-language science-fiction novel

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Polish pronunciation: [ˈadam mit͡sˈkʲɛvit͡ʂ] ⓘ;
    Belarusian: Ада́м Берна́рд Міцке́віч / Adam Biernard Mickievič;
    Lithuanian: Adomas Bernardas Mickevičius;
    Ukrainian: Адам Бернард Міцкевич, romanized: Adam Bernard Mitskevych;
    Russian: Ада́м-Берна́рд Никола́евич Мицке́вич, romanized: Adám-Bernárd Nikoláyevich Mitskévich.
  2. ^ Czesław Miłosz and Kazimierz Wyka each note that Adam Mickiewicz's exact birthplace cannot be ascertained due to conflicting records and missing documentation.[10][11]

References

  1. ^ Франко, І.Я. (1980) [1885]. "Адам Міцкевич в українській літературі" [Adam Mickiewicz in Ukrainian literature]. Зібрання творів у 50-и томах (in Ukrainian). Vol. 26. Київ: Наукова думка. pp. 384–390.
  2. ^ "Poland's Famous Poets". Polish-dictionary.com. Archived from the original on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2014.
  3. ^ a b S. Treugutt: Mickiewicz – domowy i daleki. in: A. Mickiewicz: Dzieła I. Warszawa 1998, p. 7
  4. ^ a b E. Zarych: Posłowie. in: A. Mickiewicz: Ballady i romanse. Kraków 2001, p. 76
  5. ^
    ISBN 978-90-272-3458-2
    .
  6. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8223-1233-8
    .
  7. ^ a b Andrzej Wójcik; Marek Englender (1980). Budowniczowie gwiazd. Krajowa Agencja Wydawn. pp. 19–10.
  8. ^
    ISBN 978-83-01-12639-1
    .
  9. ^ a b c d T. Macios, Posłowie (Afterword) to Adam Mickiewicz, Dziady, Kraków, 2004, pp. 239–40.
  10. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  11. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 694.
  12. ^ a b c d e f Venclova, Tomas. "Native Realm Revisited: Mickiewicz's Lithuania and Mickiewicz in Lithuania". Lituanus Volume 53, No 3 – Fall 2007. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2007. This semantic confusion was amplified by the fact that the Nowogródek region, although inhabited mainly by Belarusian speakers, was for several centuries considered part and parcel of Lithuania Propria—Lithuania in the narrow sense; as different from the 'Ruthenian' regions of the Grand Duchy.
  13. ISSN 0084-3296
    .
  14. ISBN 9986-39-082-6
    .
  15. ^
    ISBN 978-0-8014-4471-5
    .
  16. ISBN 978-0-8191-8615-7
    .
  17. ^ "Adam Mickiewicz - informacje o autorze, biografia". lekcjapolskiego.pl. Archived from the original on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021.
  18. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 695.
  19. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  20. ^ (in Russian) Adam Mickiewitch, Poems, Moscow, 1979, pp. 122, 340.
  21. ^ (in Russian) David Tukhmanov Archived 10 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  23. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 696.
  24. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 697.
  25. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  26. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 698.
  27. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 699.
  28. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  29. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  30. ^ Twórczość. RSW "Prasa-Książa-Ruch". 1998. p. 80.
  31. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 700.
  32. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  33. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  34. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 701.
  35. ISBN 978-0-8156-3081-4
    .
  36. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 702.
  37. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 703.
  38. Polska Akademia Umiejętności
    , 1937, p. 424.
  39. Polska Akademia Umiejętności
    , 1937, p. 423.
  40. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  41. ^
    Polski Słownik Biograficzny
    , vol. XX, 1975, p. 704.
  42. ^ Muzeum Adama Mickiewicza w Stambule (przewodnik). Ministerstwo Kultury i Turystyki Republiki Turcji – Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, 26 November 2005.
  43. ISBN 978-1-57958-422-1. Archived
    from the original on 15 December 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
  44. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  45. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  46. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  47. ^
    ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  48. ISBN 978-1-905981-08-3
    .
  49. ISBN 978-0-520-04477-7
    .
  50. ^
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  53. ^ The Westminster Review. J.M. Mason. 1879. p. 378.
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  58. ISBN 978-5-430-01467-4
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  59. ^ Digimas, A. (1984). Ar Adomas Mickevičius mokėjo lietuviškai? [Did Adam Mickiewicz know the Lithuanian language?] (Videotape) (in Lithuanian). Lietuvos Kino Studija. 4:30-4:36 minutes in. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
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  61. ^ Digimas, A. (1984). Ar Adomas Mickevičius mokėjo lietuviškai? [Did Adam Mickiewicz know the Lithuanian language?] (Videotape) (in Lithuanian). Lietuvos Kino Studija. 4:44-4:54 minutes in. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
  62. ^ a b Digimas, A. (1984). Ar Adomas Mickevičius mokėjo lietuviškai? [Did Adam Mickiewicz know the Lithuanian language?] (Videotape) (in Lithuanian). Lietuvos Kino Studija. 6:26-7:05 minutes in. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
  63. ^ "Adomas Mickevičius - Lietuviškų dainų fragmentai" [Adomas Mickevičius and fragments of Lithuanian songs]. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
  64. ^ "About the fragments of Lithuanian songs, written down by Adomas Mickevičius". Archived from the original on 26 October 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
  65. ^ Digimas, A. (1984). Ar Adomas Mickevičius mokėjo lietuviškai? [Did Adam Mickiewicz know the Lithuanian language?] (Videotape) (in Lithuanian). Lietuvos Kino Studija. 7:00-7:06 minutes in. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 21 November 2020.
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    .
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    .
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    .
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    .
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  87. ^ Paneth, Philip (1939). Is Poland Lost?. London: Nicholson and Watson. p. 41.
  88. ^ Mills, Clark; Landsbergis, Algirdas (1962). The Green Oak. New York: Theo. Gaus' Sons. p. 15.
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  90. ^ Boswell, A. Bruce (1919). Poland and the Poles. London: Methuen & Co. p. 217.
  91. ^ Harrison, E.J. (1922). Lithuania, Past & Present. London: Gresham Press. p. 165.
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  94. ISBN 978-0-521-81529-1. Archived
    from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
  95. ^ Balaban, Meir, The History of the Frank Movement, 2 vols., 1934–35, pp. 254–259.
  96. ^ "Mickiewicz's mother, descended from a converted Frankist family": "Mickiewicz, Adam," Encyclopaedia Judaica. "Mickiewicz's Frankist origins were well-known to the Warsaw Jewish community as early as 1838 (according to evidence in the AZDJ of that year, p. 362). "The parents of the poet's wife also came from Frankist families": "Frank, Jacob, and the Frankists," Encyclopaedia Judaica.
  97. ISBN 978-0-87451-602-9
    . the Frankist background of the poet's mother
  98. ^ Wiktor Weintraub (1954). The poetry of Adam Mickiewicz. Mouton. p. 11. Her (Barbara Mickiewicz) maiden name was Majewska. In old Lithuania, every baptised Jew became ennobled, and there were Majewskis of Jewish origin. That must have been the reason for the rumours, repeated by some of the poet's contemporaries, that Mickiewicz's mother was a Jewess by origin. However, genealogical research makes such an assumption rather improbable
  99. ISBN 978-0-374-51937-7
    . The mother's low social status—her father was a land steward—argues against a Frankist origin. The Frankists were usually of the nobility and therefore socially superior to the common gentry.
  100. ^ (in Polish) Paweł Goźliński, "Rzym koło Nowogródka" Archived 14 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine (Rome near Nowogródek), interview with historian Tomasz Łubieński, editor-in-chief of Nowe Ksiąźki, Gazeta Wyborcza, 16 October 1998.
  101. ^ Rybczonek, S., "Przodkowie Adama Mickiewicza po kądzieli" ("Adam Mickiewicz's Ancestors on the Distaff Side"), Blok-Notes Muzeum Literatury im. Adama Mickiewicza, 1999, no. 12/13.
  102. ISSN 0162-9778. Archived
    from the original on 24 April 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  103. ^ "Adomas Mickevičius (Adam Mickiewicz)". Lithuanian Classic Literature Anthology (UNESCO "Publica" series). Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2011.

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

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