Adi Shankara
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Adi Shankara (8th c. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya (
The historical influence of his works on Hindu intellectual thought has been questioned.
Due to his later fame, over 300 texts are attributed to him, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), introductory topical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra).
His authentic works present a harmonizing reading of the
Dating
Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara.[38] While the Advaita-tradition assigns him to the 5th century BCE, the scholarly-accepted dating places Shankara to be a scholar from the first half of the 8th century CE.[30][39]
Matha datings
- 509–477 Jagannatha Puri at 484 BCE and Sringeri at 483 BCE.[42] while according to the Kanchi Peetham Adi Shankara was born in Kali 2593 (509 BCE).[43][note 9]
The records of the
Scholarly datings
- 788–820 CE: This was proposed by late 19th and early twentieth century scholars, following K.P. Tiele,[note 10] and was customarily accepted by scholars such as Max Müller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishna.[47][48] Though the 788–820 CE dates are widespread in 20th-century publications, recent scholarship has questioned the 788–820 CE dates.[49][note 11]
- c. 700 – c. 750 CE: Late 20th-century and early 21st-century scholarship tends to place Shankara's life in the first half of the 8th century.[49][51][note 12] This estimate is based on the probable earliest and latest limits for his lifetime. His works contains traces of debates with Buddhist and Mimamsa authors from th 5th-7th century, setting the earliest limit at c. 650 CE. The latest limit is established by Vacaspatimisra's commentary on Sankara's work, dated first half of the 9th century, thus setting the latest limit for Sankara at c. 800 CE.[52]
Other datings
- 44–12 BCE: the commentator Anandagiri believed he was born at Chidambaram in 44 BCE and died in 12 BCE.[53]
- 6th century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R.G. Bhandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE.[53]
- 805–897 CE: Venkiteswara not only places Shankara later than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety-two years.[53]
Traditional and historical views on Shankara
Traditional views of Shankara
Shankara has an unparallelled status in the tradition of
Prominence of Maṇḍana Miśra (until 10th century)
Scholars have questioned Shankara's early influence in India.[11] The Buddhist scholar Richard E. King states,
Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence.[7]
According to Clark, "Sankara was relatively unknown during his life-time, and probably for several centuries after, as there is no mention of him in Buddhist or jain sources for centuries; nor is he mentioned by other important philosophers of the ninth and tenth centuries."
According to
Hajime Nakamura states that prior to Shankara, views similar to his already existed, but did not occupy a dominant position within the Vedanta.[71] Until the 11th century, Vedanta itself was a peripheral school of thought;[72] Vedanta became a major influence when it was utilized by various sects of Hinduism to ground their doctrines.[73] The early Vedanta scholars were from the upper classes of society, well-educated in traditional culture. They formed a social elite, "sharply distinguished from the general practitioners and theologians of Hinduism."[74] Their teachings were "transmitted among a small number of selected intellectuals".[74] Works of the early Vedanta schools do not contain references to Vishnu or Shiva.[75] It was only after Shankara that "the theologians of the various sects of Hinduism utilized Vedanta philosophy to a greater or lesser degree to form the basis of their doctrines,"[76] whereby "its theoretical influence upon the whole of Indian society became final and definitive."[74] Examples are Ramanuja (11th c.), who aligned bhakti, "the major force in the religions of Hinduism," with philosophical thought, meanwhile rejecting Shankara's views,[web 3] and the Nath-tradition.[77]
Vijayanagara Empire and Vidyaranya (14th century) - creation of traditional (hagiographic) views
In medieval times, Advaita Vedanta position as most influential Hindu darsana started to take shape, as Advaitins in the Vijayanagara Empire competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their sect.[78] It is only during this period that the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedanta was established.[11][13][79] Many of Shankara's biographies were created and published in and after the 14th century, such as Vidyaranya's widely cited Śankara-vijaya. Vidyaranya, also known as Madhava, who was the 12th Jagadguru of the Śringeri Śarada Pītham from 1380 to 1386[80] and a minister in the Vijayanagara Empire,[81] inspired the re-creation of the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire of South India. This may have been in response to the devastation caused by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate,[11][13][79][81] but his efforts were also targeted at Sri Vaishnava groups, especially Visishtadvaita, which was dominant in territories conquered by the Vijayanagara Empire.[82] Furthermore, sects competed for patronage from the royal court, and tried to convert others to their own sectarian system.[78] Vidyaranya and his brothers, note Paul Hacker and other scholars,[11][13] wrote extensive Advaitic commentaries on the Vedas and Dharma to make "the authoritative literature of the Aryan religion" more accessible.[83] Vidyaranya was an influential Advaitin, and he created legends to turn Shankara, whose elevated philosophy had no appeal to gain widespread popularity, into a "divine folk-hero who spread his teaching through his digvijaya ("universal conquest," see below) all over India like a victorious conqueror."[83][84] In his doxography Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha ("Summary of all views") Vidyaranya presented Shankara's teachings as the summit of all darsanas, presenting the other darsanas as partial truths which converged in Shankara's teachings, which was regarded to be the most inclusive system.[85][83] The Vaishanava traditions of Dvaita and Visishtadvaita were not classified as Vedanta, and placed just above Buddhism and Jainism, reflecting the threat they posed for Vidyaranya's Advaita allegiance.[86] Bhedabheda wasn't mentioned at all, "literally written out of the history of Indian philosophy."[87] Such was the influence of the Sarvadarśanasaṅgraha, that early Indologists also regarded Advaita Vedanta as the most accurate interpretation of the Upanishads.[86] And Vidyaranya founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself.[83][84] Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,[81] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.[11]
Hagiographies: Digvijaya - "The conquests of Shankara" (14th-17th century)
Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scanty.[2] His existing biographies are not historical accurate documents, but politically motivated hagiographies which were all written several centuries after his time and abound in legends and improbable events.[49]
Sources
There are at least fourteen different known hagiographies of Adi Shankara's life.[39] These, as well as other hagiographical works on Shankara, were written many centuries to a thousand years after Shankara's death,[88] in Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit languages, and the hagiographies are filled with legends and fiction, often mutually contradictory.[39][note 15]
Many of these are called the Śankara Vijaya ('The conquests (digvijaya) of Shankara'), while some are called Guruvijaya, Sankarabhyudaya and Shankaracaryacarita. Of these, the Brhat-Sankara-Vijaya by Citsukha is the oldest hagiography but only available in excerpts, while Sankaradigvijaya by Mādhava (17th c.) and Sankaravijaya by Anandagiri are the most cited.[39][2] Other significant hagiographies are the Cidvilāsīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of Cidvilāsa, c. between the 15th and 17th centuries), and the Keraļīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of the Kerala region, extant from c. the 17th century).[89][90]}
Scholars note that one of the most cited Shankara hagiographies, Anandagiri's, includes stories and legends about historically different people, but all bearing the same name of Sri Shankaracarya or also referred to as Shankara but likely meaning more ancient scholars with names such as Vidya-sankara, Sankara-misra and Sankara-nanda.[2] Some hagiographies are probably written by those who sought to create a historical basis for their rituals or theories.[2][88]
Early life
According to the oldest hagiographies, Shankara was born in the southern Indian state of
Sannyasa
Shankara's hagiographies describe him as someone who was attracted to the life of
The hagiographies vary in their description of where he went, who he met and debated and many other details of his life. Most mention Shankara studying the
Travels (Digvijaya) and disciples
Thereafter, the hagiographies about Shankara vary significantly. Different and widely inconsistent accounts of his life include diverse journeys, pilgrimages, public debates, installation of yantras and lingas, as well as the founding of monastic centers in north, east, west and south India.[2][98]
While the details and chronology vary, most hagiographies present Shankara as traveling widely within India, Gujarat to Bengal, and participating in public philosophical debates with different orthodox schools of
Shankara had a number of disciple scholars during his travels, including Padmapadacharya (also called Sanandana, associated with the text Atma-bodha), Sureśvaracharya, Totakacharya, Hastamalakacharya, Chitsukha, Prthividhara, Chidvilasayati, Bodhendra, Brahmendra, Sadananda and others, who authored their own literature on Shankara and Advaita Vedanta.[100][104]
Death
According to hagiographies, supported by four maths, Adi Shankara died at Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand, a Hindu pilgrimage site in the Himalayas.[105][19] Texts say that he was last seen by his disciples behind the Kedarnath temple, walking in the Himalayas until he was not traced. Some texts locate his death in alternate locations such as Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu) and somewhere in the state of Kerala.[98].According to the hagiographies related to the monastery of Kanchi, Adi Sankara died at Kanchi.[106]
Hagiographies: attribution of Mathas and Smarta tradition (14-17th century)
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the founder of the .
Dashanami Sampradaya and mathas
Advaita Vedanta is, at least in the west, primarily known as a philosophical system. But it is also a tradition of renunciation. Philosophy and renunciation are closely related:[web 4]
Most of the notable authors in the advaita tradition were members of the sannyasa tradition, and both sides of the tradition share the same values, attitudes and metaphysics.[web 4]
Shankara was a Vaishnavite who came to be presented as an incarnation of
According to tradition, Adi Sankara organised the Hindu monks of these ten sects or names under four
According to Paul Hacker, the system may have been initiated by Vidyaranya (14th c.), who may have founded a matha, proclaiming that it was established by Shankara himself, as part of his campaign to propagate Shankara's Advaita Vedanta.[83][84] Vidyaranya enjoyed royal support,[81] and his sponsorship and methodical efforts helped establish Shankara as a rallying symbol of values, spread historical and cultural influence of Shankara's Vedānta philosophies, and establish monasteries (mathas) to expand the cultural influence of Shankara and Advaita Vedānta.[11]
Smarta Tradition
Traditionally, Shankara is regarded as the greatest teacher
Practically, Shankara fostered a rapprochement between Advaita and smarta orthodoxy, which by his time had not only continued to defend the varnasramadharma theory as defining the path of karman, but had developed the practice of pancayatanapuja ("five-shrine worship") as a solution to varied and conflicting devotional practices. Thus one could worship any one of five deities (Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Surya, Ganesa) as one's istadevata ("deity of choice").[114]
Panchayatana puja (
Neo-Vedanta (19-20th century)
Shankara's position was further established in the 19th and 20th-century, when neo-Vedantins and western Orientalists elevated Advaita Vedanta "as the connecting theological thread that united Hinduism into a single religious tradition."[122] Shankara became "an iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," despite the fact that most Hindus do not adhere to Advaita Vedanta.[3]
21st century
A 108-foot statue of Adi Shankara was unveiled near Omkareshwar Temple in Madhya Pradesh to commemorate his life and work on 21 September 2023.[123] Another 12-foot statue at Kedarnath was unveiled by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 5 November 2019, is made of chlorite schist and weighs 35 tonnes.[124][125]
Works
Adi Shankara is highly esteemed in contemporary Advaita Vedanta, and over 300 texts are attributed to his name, including commentaries (Bhāṣya), original philosophical expositions (Prakaraṇa grantha) and poetry (Stotra).[19][20] However, most of these are not authentic works of Shankara, and are likely to be written by his admirers, or scholars whose name was also Shankaracharya.[21][22] Piantelli has published a complete list of works attributed to Adi Sankara, along with issues of authenticity for most.[126]
Authentic works
Shankara is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient Indian texts. Shankara's masterpiece of commentary is the Brahmasutrabhasya (literally, commentary on
According to Flood, of the Upanishadic commentaries only his commentaries on the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and the Taittiriya Upanishad are authentic.[127] Hacker and Mayeda also accept as authentic the commentaries on the Chandogya Upanishad, the Aitareya Upanishad, the Kena Upanishad,[note 18] the Isha Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, and the Prashna Upanishad.[19][21][129] The authenticity of the commentary on the Mandukya Upanishad and Gaudapadas Madukya-karika has been questioned.[130][129]
Other authentic works of Shankara include commentaries on the
Shankara also authored
Shankara's stotras considered authentic include those dedicated to Krishna (Vaishnavism) and one to Shiva (Shaivism) – often considered two different sects within Hinduism. Scholars suggest that these stotra are not sectarian, but essentially Advaitic and reach for a unified universal view of Vedanta.[131]
Shankara's commentary on the
Works of doubtful authenticity or not authentic
Commentaries on Nrisimha-Purvatatapaniya and Shveshvatara Upanishads are attributed to Shankara, but their authenticity is highly doubtful.[21][129][134] Similarly, commentaries on several early and later Upanishads attributed to Shankara are rejected by scholars[135] to be his works, and are likely works of later scholars; these include: Kaushitaki Upanishad, Maitri Upanishad, Kaivalya Upanishad, Paramahamsa Upanishad, Sakatayana Upanishad, Mandala Brahmana Upanishad, Maha Narayana Upanishad, Gopalatapaniya Upanishad. However, in Brahmasutra-Bhasya, Shankara cites some of these Upanishads as he develops his arguments, but the historical notes left by his companions and disciples, along with major differences in style and the content of the commentaries on later Upanishad have led scholars to conclude that the commentaries on later Upanishads were not Shankara's work.[129]
The authenticity of Shankara being the author of
The Aparokshanubhuti and Atma bodha are also attributed to Shankara, as his original philosophical treatises, but this is doubtful. Paul Hacker has also expressed some reservations that the compendium Sarva-darsana-siddhanta Sangraha was completely authored by Shankara, because of difference in style and thematic inconsistencies in parts.[135] Similarly, Gayatri-bhasya is doubtful to be Shankara's work.[129] Other commentaries that are highly unlikely to be Shankara's work include those on Uttaragita, Siva-gita, Brahma-gita, Lalita-shasranama, Suta-samhita and Sandhya-bhasya. The commentary on the Tantric work Lalita-trisati-bhasya attributed to Shankara is also unauthentic.[129]
Shankara is widely credited with commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the
Philosophy and practice
Atma Shatakam (The song of the Self):I am Consciousness, I am
Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.[note 20]Without hate, without infatuation, without craving, without greed;
Neither arrogance, nor conceit, never jealous I am;
Neither dharma, nor artha, neither kama, nor moksha am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.Without sins, without merits, without elation, without sorrow;
Neither mantra, nor rituals, neither pilgrimage, nor Vedas;
Neither the experiencer, nor experienced, nor the experience am I,
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.Without fear, without death, without discrimination, without caste;
Neither father, nor mother, never born I am;
Neither kith, nor kin, neither teacher, nor student am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.Without form, without figure, without resemblance am I;
Vitality of all senses, in everything I am;
Neither attached, nor released am I;
I am Consciousness, I am Bliss, I am Shiva, I am Shiva.
—Adi Shankara, Nirvana Shatakam, Hymns 3–6[141]
According to Koller, Shankara, and his contemporaries, made a significant contribution in understanding Buddhism and the ancient Vedic traditions, then transforming the extant ideas, particularly reforming the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, making it India's most important "spiritual tradition" for more than a thousand years.
According to Nakamura, Shankara was not an original thinker, but systematised the works of preceding philosophers.
Historical context
Shankara lived in the time of the great "Late classical Hinduism",
The disintegration of central power also lead to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.
Systematizer of Advaita
According to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of the early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".[154] Shankara "was the person who synthesized the Advaita-vāda which had previously existed before him".[154] According to Nakamura, after the growing influence of Buddhism on Vedānta, culminating in the works of Gauḍapāda, Adi Shankara gave a Vedantic character to the Buddhistic elements in these works,[155] synthesising and rejuvenating the doctrine of Advaita.[156]
According to Koller, using ideas in ancient Indian texts, Shankara systematized the foundation for Advaita
Shankara has been described as influenced by Shaivism and Shaktism, but his works and philosophy suggest greater overlap with Vaishnavism, influence of
Moksha - liberating knowledge of Brahman
The central theme of Shankara's writings is the liberating knowledge of the true identity of jivatman (individual self) as
According to Shankara, the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone is real, while changing entities do not have absolute existence. Shankara's primary objective was to explain how moksha is attained in this life by recognizing the true identity of jivatman as Atman-Brahman,[25] as mediated by the Mahāvākyas, especially Tat Tvam Asi, "That you are." Correct knowledge of jivatman and Atman-Brahman is the attainment of Brahman, immortality,[163] and leads to moksha (liberation) from suffering[note 26] and samsara, the cycle of rebirth[164] This is stated by Shankara as follows:
I am other than name, form and action.
My nature is ever free!
I am Self, the supreme unconditioned Brahman.
I am pure Awareness, always non-dual.— Adi Shankara,Upadesasahasri 11.7, [164]
Pramanas - means of knowledge
Shankara recognized the means of knowledge,
According to Michael Comans (aka Vasudevacharya), Shankara considered perception and inference as a primary most reliable epistemic means, and where these means to knowledge help one gain "what is beneficial and to avoid what is harmful", there is no need for or wisdom in referring to the scriptures.[169] In certain matters related to metaphysics and ethics, says Shankara, the testimony and wisdom in scriptures such as the Vedas and the Upanishads become important.[170]
Merrell-Wolff states that Shankara accepts Vedas and Upanishads as a source of knowledge as he develops his philosophical theses, yet he never rests his case on the ancient texts, rather proves each thesis, point by point using the pramanas (means of knowledge) of reason and experience.[171][172] Hacker and Phillips note that his insight into rules of reasoning and hierarchical emphasis on epistemic steps is "doubtlessly the suggestion" of Shankara in Brahma-sutra-bhasya, an insight that flowers in the works of his companion and disciple Padmapada.[173]
Logic versus revelation
Stcherbatsky in 1927 criticized Shankara for demanding the use of logic from
Recent scholarship states that Shankara's arguments on revelation are about apta vacana (Sanskrit: आप्तवचन, sayings of the wise, relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
Anubhava
Anantanand Rambachan summarizes the widely held view on the role of anubhava in Shankara's epistemology as follows, before critiquing it:
According to these [widely represented contemporary] studies, Shankara only accorded a provisional validity to the knowledge gained by inquiry into the words of the Śruti (Vedas) and did not see the latter as the unique source (pramana) of Brahmajnana. The affirmations of the Śruti, it is argued, need to be verified and confirmed by the knowledge gained through direct experience (anubhava) and the authority of the Śruti, therefore, is only secondary.[23]
Yoga and contemplative exercises
Shankara considered the purity and steadiness of mind achieved in Yoga as an aid to gaining moksha knowledge, but such yogic state of mind cannot in itself give rise to such knowledge.[181] To Shankara, that knowledge of Brahman springs only from inquiry into the teachings of the Upanishads.[182] The method of yoga, encouraged in Shankara's teachings notes Comans, includes withdrawal of mind from sense objects as in Patanjali's system, but it is not complete thought suppression, instead it is a "meditative exercise of withdrawal from the particular and identification with the universal, leading to contemplation of oneself as the most universal, namely, Consciousness".[183] Describing Shankara's style of yogic practice, Comans writes:
the type of yoga which Sankara presents here is a method of merging, as it were, the particular (visesa) into the general (samanya). For example, diverse sounds are merged in the sense of hearing, which has greater generality insofar as the sense of hearing is the locus of all sounds. The sense of hearing is merged into the mind, whose nature consists of thinking about things, and the mind is in turn merged into the intellect, which Sankara then says is made into 'mere cognition' (vijnanamatra); that is, all particular cognitions resolve into their universal, which is cognition as such, thought without any particular object. And that in turn is merged into its universal, mere Consciousness (prajnafnaghana), upon which everything previously referred to ultimately depends.[183]
Shankara rejected those yoga system variations that suggest complete thought suppression leads to liberation, as well the view that the
Samanvayat Tatparya Linga
Shankara cautioned against cherrypicking a phrase or verse out of context from Vedic literature, and remarks in the opening chapter of his Brahmasutra-Bhasya that the Anvaya (theme or purport) of any treatise can only be correctly understood if one attends to the Samanvayat Tatparya Linga, that is six characteristics of the text under consideration: (1) the common in Upakrama (introductory statement) and Upasamhara (conclusions); (2) Abhyasa (message repeated); (3) Apurvata (unique proposition or novelty); (4) Phala (fruit or result derived); (5) Arthavada (explained meaning, praised point) and (6) Yukti (verifiable reasoning).[184][185] While this methodology has roots in the theoretical works of Nyaya school of Hinduism, Shankara consolidated and applied it with his unique exegetical method called Anvaya-Vyatireka, which states that for proper understanding one must "accept only meanings that are compatible with all characteristics" and "exclude meanings that are incompatible with any".[186][187]
The Mahāvākyas - the identity of Ātman and Brahman
Moksha, liberation from suffering and rebirth and attaining immortality, is attained by disidentification from the body-mind complex and gaining self-knowledge as being in essence Atman, and attaining knowledge of the identity of Ātman and Brahman.[164][163] According to Shankara, the individual Ātman and Brahman seem different at the empirical level of reality, but this difference is only an illusion, and at the highest level of reality they are really identical.[188] The real self is Sat, "the Existent," that is, Ātman-Brahman.[189][190][note 29] Whereas the difference between Ātman and non-Ātman is deemed self-evident, knowledge of the identity of Ātman and Brahman is revealed by the shruti, especially the Upanishadic statement tat tvam asi.
Mahāvākyas
According to Shankara, a large number of Upanishadic statements reveal the identity of Ātman and Brahman. In the Advaita Vedānta tradition, four of those statements, the Mahāvākyas, which are taken literal, in contrast to other statements, have a special importance in revealing this identity.[191][192] They are:
- तत्त्वमसि, tat tvam asi, Chandogya VI.8.7. Traditionally rendered as "That Thou Art" (that you are),[193][194][195] with tat in Ch.U.6.8.7 referring to sat, "the Existent"[196][197][198]); correctly translated as "That's how [thus] you are,"[193][195][199] with tat in Ch.U.6.12.3, it' original location from where it was copied to other verses,[193] referring to "the very nature of all existence as permeated by [the finest essence]"[200][201]
- अहं ब्रह्मास्मि, Brhadāranyaka I.4.10, "I am Brahman," or "I am Divine."[202]
- प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म, prajñānam brahma, Aitareya V.3, "Prajñānam[note 30] is Brahman."[note 31]
- अयमात्मा ब्रह्म, ayamātmā brahma, Mandukya II, "This Atman is Brahman."
That you are
The longest chapter of Shankara's
Up.I.174: "Through such sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the Witness of all the internal organs." Up.I.18.190: "Through such sentences as "[Thou art] the Existent" [...] right knowledge concerning the inner Atman will become clearer." Up.I.18.193-194: "In the sentence "Thou art That" [...] [t]he word "That" means inner Atman."[216]
The statement "tat tvam asi" sheds the false notion that Atman is different from Brahman.[217] According toNakamura, the non-duality of atman and Brahman "is a famous characteristic of Sankara's thought, but it was already taught by Sundarapandya"[218] (c. 600 CE or earlier).[29] Shankara cites Sundarapandya in his comments to Brahma Sutra verse I.1.4:
When the metaphorical or false atman is non-existent, [the ideas of my] child, [my] body are sublated. Therefore, when it is realized that 'I am the existent Brahman, atman', how can anyduty exist?[219]
From this, and a large number of other accordances, Nakamura concludes that Shankar was not an original thinker, but "a synthesizer of existing Advaita and the rejuvenator, as well as a defender, of ancient learning."[220]
Meditation on the Mahāvākya
In the Upadesasahasri Shankara, Shankara is ambivalent on the need for meditation on the Upanishadic mahavyaka. He states that "right knowledge arises at the moment of hearing,"[221] and rejects prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana meditation, that is, meditation on the meaning of the sentences, and in Up.II.3 recommends parisamkhyana,[222] separating Atman from everything that is not Atman, that is, the sense-objects and sense-organs, and the pleasant and unpleasant things and merit and demerit connected with them.[223] Yet, Shankara then concludes with declaring that only Atman exists, stating that "all the sentences of the Upanishads concerning non-duality of Atman should be fully contemplated, should be contemplated."[224] As Mayeda states, "how they [prasamcaksa or prasamkhyana versus parisamkhyana] differ from each other in not known."[225]
Prasamkhyana was advocated by Mandana Misra,[226] the older contemporary of Shankara who was the most influential Advaitin until the 10th century.[62][9][note 13] "According to Mandana, the mahavakyas are incapable, by themselves, of bringing about brahmajnana. The Vedanta-vakyas convey an indirect knowledge which is made direct only by deep meditation (prasamkhyana). The latter is a continuous contemplation of the purport of the mahavakyas.[227] Vācaspati Miśra, a student of Mandana Misra, agreed with Mandana Misra, and their stance is defended by the Bhamati-school, founded by Vācaspati Miśra.[228] In contrast, the Vivarana school founded by Prakasatman (c. 1200–1300)[229] follows Shankara closely, arguing that the mahavakyas are the direct cause of gaining knowledge.[230]
Renouncement of ritualism
Shankara, in his text Upadesasahasri, discourages ritual worship such as oblations to Deva (God), because that assumes the Self within is different from the Brahman.[note 4][note 5] The "doctrine of difference" is wrong, asserts Shankara, because, "he who knows the Brahman is one and he is another, does not know Brahman".[232][233] The false notion that Atman is different from Brahman[217] is connected with the novice's conviction that (Upadeshasahasri II.1.25)
...I am one [and] He is another; I am ignorant, experience pleasure and pain, am bound and a transmigrator [whereas] he is essentially different from me, the god not subject to transmigration. By worshipping Him with oblation, offerings, homage and the like through the [performance of] the actions prescribed for [my] class and stage of life, I wish to get out of the ocean of transmigratory existence. How am I he?[234]
Recognizing oneself as "the Existent-Brahman," which is mediated by scriptural teachings, is contrasted with the notion of "I act," which is mediated by relying on sense-perception and the like.[235] According to Shankara, the statement "Thou art That" "remove[s] the delusion of a hearer,"[236] "so through sentences as "Thou art That" one knows one's own Atman, the witness of all internal organs,"[237] and not from any actions.[238][note 33] With this realization, the performance of rituals is prohibited, "since [the use of] rituals and their requisites is contradictory to the realization of the identity [of Atman] with the highest Atman."[240]
However, Shankara also asserts that Self-knowledge is realized when one's mind is purified by an ethical life that observes Yamas such as Ahimsa (non-injury, non-violence to others in body, mind and thoughts) and Niyamas. Rituals and rites such as yajna (a fire ritual), asserts Shankara, can help draw and prepare the mind for the journey to Self-knowledge.[241] He emphasizes the need for ethics such as Akrodha and Yamas during Brahmacharya, stating the lack of ethics as causes that prevent students from attaining knowledge.[241][242]
Īśvara
Shankara, while rejecting empirical reality due to his position of nonduality, still attributes value to the universe as it identifies with Īśvara. He sometimes blurs the distinction between Īśvara and Brahman, using various terms for both. However, he generally separates Īśvara, associated with the universe and its attributes, from the absolute nondual brahman. Drawing from the Upanishads, Shankara sees Īśvara as the universe's material and intelligent cause, emanating it through the power of maya, thereby making the universe sentient and self-aware. In relation to the Mandukya Upanishad, Shankara compares the universe's unmanifest state to Īśvara in a deep dreamless cosmic state.[243]
Influences of Mahayana Buddhism
Shankara's Vedanta shows similarities with
Similarities and influences
Despite Shankara's criticism of certain schools of Mahayana Buddhism, Shankara's philosophy shows strong similarities with the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy which he attacks.[32] According to S.N. Dasgupta,
Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His
According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a
... the difference between
Advaita philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind.[246]
Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Maya and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism.
Differences
The qualification of "crypto-Buddhist" is rejected by the Advaita Vedanta tradition, highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman.
Films
- Shankaracharya (1927), Indian silent film about Shankara by Kali Prasad Ghosh.[250]
- Jagadguru Shrimad Shankaracharya (1928), Indian silent film by Parshwanath Yeshwant Altekar.[250]
- Jagadguru Shankaracharya (1955), Indian Hindi film by Sheikh Fattelal.[250]
- In 1977 Master Raghuplays childhood.
- In 1983 a film directed by G.V. Iyer named Adi Shankaracharya was premiered, the first film ever made entirely in Sanskrit language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were compiled.[251] The movie received the Indian National Film Awards for Best Film, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Audiography.[252][253]
- On 15 August 2013, Jagadguru Adi Shankara was released in an Indian Telugu-language biographical film written and directed by J. K. Bharavi and was later dubbed in Kannada with the same title, by Upendra giving narration for the Kannada dubbed version
See also
- Swami Vivekananda
- Adi Shri Gauḍapādāchārya
- Jnana Yoga
- Upanishads
- Shri Gaudapadacharya Math
- Shri Govinda Bhagavatpadacharya
- Vairagya
- Vivekachudamani
- Soundarya Lahari
- Shivananda Lahari
- Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
- Govardhan Peetham (East), Puri, Odisha
- Dwarka Kalika Pitha (West), Dwarka, Gujarat
- Jyotirmath Peetham (North), Jyotirmath, Badrikashram, Uttarakhand
- Shri Sringeri Sharada Peetham (South), Sringeri, Karnataka
- Shri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu
- Dakshinamurti Stotra
Notes
- ^ a b Modern scholarship places Shankara in the earlier part of the 8th century CE (c. 700–750).(Koller 2013, p. 99, Comans 2000, p. 163, Mayeda 2015) Earlier generations of scholars proposed 788–820 CE.(Comans 2000, p. 163, Mayeda 2015} The cardinal Advaita matha's assign his dates as early as 509–477 BCE.
- ^ Adi means "first", to distinguish him from other Shankaras.
- ^ He is also known as Shankara Bhagavatpada (Śaṅkara Bhagavatpāda), Shankara Bhagavatpadacharya (Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya) or Shankaracharya, sometimes spelled Sankaracharya.
- ^ a b c Shankara, himself, had renounced all religious ritual acts.[231]
For an example of Shankara's reasoning "why rites and ritual actions should be given up", see Karl Potter on p. 220;
Elsewhere, Shankara's Bhasya on various Upanishads repeat "give up rituals and rites", see for example Shankara's Bhasya on Brihadaranyaka Upanishad pp. 348–350, 754–757 - ^ a b c Compare Mookerji 2011 on Svādhyāya (Vedic learning). Mookerji (2011, pp. 29–31) notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the Ŗik (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of dharma and Parabrahman. Mookerji (2011, pp. 29, 34) concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of their meaning was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation." Mookerji (2011, p. 35) refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, akshara-praptī, is followed by artha-bodha, perception of their meaning." (Artha may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context. See:
Sanskrit English Dictionary University of Kloen, Germany (2009); Karl Potter (1998), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 4, Truth" and the knowledge of paramatmanas revealed to the rishis is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.
- ^ a b King (1995, p. 183): "It is well-known that Sankara was criticized by later (rival) Vedantins as a crypto-Buddhist (pracchana bauddha).
- ^ a b Atman versus anatman:
- (Isaeva 1993, pp. 60, 145–154)
- KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-81-208-0619-1, p. 246–249, from note 385 onwards
- Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of Ātmanis central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."
- Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books
- Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now
- John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0158-5, p. 63: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
- ^ Arun Kumar Upadhyay: "The copper-plate of King Sudhanwa, said to have been issued to Sankara and now in the possession of Government on behalf of Dwärká Mutt, bears the date as Yudhisthira Saka 2663, Åsvin Sukla 15. This gives us 476 B.C. as the relevant year of his death. The copper-plate seems to have been issued to Sankara right towards the end of his career. King Sudhanwa is referred to not only by Jinavijaya but also by biographers like Madhava and Sadánanda."[40] Citsukha's Brhat-Sankara Vijaya also gives us the year of 2663 of Yudhi. Saka i.e., 476 B.C. as the year of Sankara's passing away.[41]
- ^ The successive heads of the Kanchi and all other major Hindu Advaita tradition monasteries have been called Shankaracharya leading to some confusion, discrepancies and scholarly disputes. The chronology stated in Kanchi Matha texts recognizes five major Shankaras: Adi, Kripa, Ujjvala, Muka and Abhinava. According to the Kanchi Matha tradition, it is "Abhinava Shankara" that western scholarship recognizes as the Advaita scholar Shankara, while the monastery continues to recognize its 509 BCE chronology.[43][44] Also, as per astronomical details given in books Shankara Satpatha, Shankara Vijaya, Brihat Shakara Vijaya and Prachina Shankara Vijaya, it is believed that Shankaracharya was born in 509 BCE.[citation needed] According to Kanhi Peetham, having established his divine mission, the incomparable Sankara attained his BrahmTbhava (identity with Brahman) at Kanchi, in the precincts of Sri Kamakshi, in his 32nd year, in 2625 Kali, in the cyclic year Raktakshi, corresponding to 476 B.C.[45]
- ^ Tiele based this dating on Yajnesvara Sastri's treatise Aryavidya-sudhakar ("The Moon of Noble Knowledge"), who in turn cited Bhatta Nilakantha's work Sankara-mandara-saurabha ("The fragrance of Sankara's paradise tree").[47]
- ^ The date 788–820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, though he raises a number of questions.[50]
- ^ Koller 2013, p. 99: "the best recent scholarship argues that he was born in 700 and died in 750 CE."
- ^ a b King 2002, p. 128: "Although it is common to find Western scholars and Hindus arguing that Sankaracarya was the most influential and important figure in the history of Hindu intellectual thought, this does not seem to be justified by the historical evidence."
- ^ Potter (2006, pp. 6–7): "...these modern interpreters are implying that most Advaitins after Samkara's time are confused and basically mistaken, and that 99% of the extant classical interpretive literature on Samkara's philosophy is off the mark. This is clearly a remarkably radical conclusion. Yet, there is good reason to think that it may well be true.
- ^ The hagiographies of Shankara mirror the pattern of synthesizing facts, fiction and legends as with other ancient and medieval era Indian scholars. Some hagiographic poems depict Shankara as a reincarnation of deity Shiva, much like other Indian scholars are revered as reincarnation of other deities; for example, Mandana-misra is depicted as an embodiment of deity Brahma, Citsukha of deity Varuna, Anandagiri of Agni, among others. See Isaeva (1993, pp. 69–72).
- Melpazhur Mana.
- ^ Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE).[121] The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.[121] According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE embed the pancayatana architecture very commonly, from Odisha to Karnataka to Kashmir; and the temples containing fusion deities such as Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu) are set in Panchayatana worship style.[116]
- ^ Kena Upanishad has two commentaries that are attributed to Shankara – Kenopnishad Vakyabhasya and Kenopnishad Padabhasya; scholars contest whether both are authentic, several suggesting that the Vakyabhasya is unlikely to be authentic.[128]
- ^ See also IndiaDivine.org, Authorship of Vivekachudamani and arshabodha.org, Sri Sankara's Vivekachudamani, pp. 3–4, The Question of Authorship of Vivekachudamani
- ^ Swami Vivekananda translates Shivoham, Shivoham as "I am he, I am he".[140]
- ^ This includes also the dualistic Vaishna bhakti traditions, which have also commented on the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutras, but take a different stance.
- ^ Michaels (2004, p. 41):
- In the east the Pala Empire (770–1125 CE),
- in the west and north the Gurjara-Pratihara(7th–10th century),
- in the southwest the Rashtrakuta Dynasty(752–973),
- in the Dekkhan the Chalukya dynasty (7th–8th century),
- and in the south the Pallava dynasty (7th–9th century) and the Chola dynasty (9th century).
- Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (907–960/979), during which power became decentralised end new Chán-schools emerged.
- ^ Inden (1998, p. 67): "Before the eighth century, the Buddha was accorded the position of universal deity and ceremonies by which a king attained to imperial status were elaborate donative ceremonies entailing gifts to Buddhist monks and the installation of a symbolic Buddha in a stupa ... This pattern changed in the eighth century. The Buddha was replaced as the supreme, imperial deity by one of the Hindu gods (except under the Palas of eastern India, the Buddha's homeland) ... Previously the Buddha had been accorded imperial-style worship (puja). Now as one of the Hindu gods replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship."
- ^ Brahman is not to be confused with the personalised godhead Brahma.
- ^ The suffering created by the workings of the mind entangled with physical reality
- ISBN 978-0-691-61486-1, p. 249
- Bhamatirightly interprets this point as referring to the opinion of the Madhyamikas that logic is incapable to solve the question about what existence or non-existence really are. This opinion Shankara himself, as is well known, shares. He does not accept the authority of logic as a means of cognizing the Absolute, but he deems it a privilege of the Vedantin to fare without logic, since he has Revelation to fall back upon. From all his opponents, he requires strict logical methods."
- ^ Highest self:
- Shankara, Upadesasahasri I.18.3: "I am ever-free, the existent" (Sat). I.18.6: "The two [contradictory] notions "I am the Existent-Brahman" and "I act," have Atman as their witness. It is considered more reasonable to give up only [that one] of the two [notions] which arises from ignorance. I.18.7: "The notion, "I am the Existent," arises from right means of knowledge [while] the other notion has its origin in fallacious means of knowledge."[254]
- Sivananda 1993, p. 219: "Brahman (the Absolute) is alone real; this world is unreal; and the Jiva or individual soul is non-different from Brahman."
- Deutsch 1973, p. 54: "[the] essential status [of the individual human person] is that of unqualified reality, of identity with the Absolute [...] the self (jiva) is only misperceived: the self is really Brahman."
- Koller 2013, pp. 100–101: "Atman, which is identical to Brahman, is ultimately the only reality and [...] the appearance of plurality is entirely the work of ignorance [...] the self is ultimately of the nature of Atman/Brahman [...] Brahman alone is ultimately real."
- Bowker 2000: "There is only Brahman, which is necessarily undifferentiated. It follows that there cannot even be a difference, or duality, between the human subject, or self, and Brahman, for Brahman must be that very self (since Brahman is the reality underlying all appearance). The goal of human life and wisdom must, therefore, be the realization that the self (ātman) is Brahman."
- Menon 2012: "The experiencing self (jīva) and the transcendental self of the Universe (ātman) are in reality identical (both are Brahman), though the individual self seems different as space within a container seems different from space as such. These cardinal doctrines are represented in the anonymous verse "brahma satyam jagan mithya; jīvo brahmaiva na aparah" (Brahman is alone True, and this world of plurality is an error; the individual self is not different from Brahman)."
- Shankara, Upadesasahasri I.18.3: "I am ever-free, the existent" (
- ^ "Consciousness",[203][web 5] "intelligence",[204][202] "wisdom"
- ^ "the Absolute",[203][web 5] "infinite",[web 5] "the Highest truth"[web 5]
- ^ While the Vedanta tradition equates sat ("the Existent") with Brahman, the Chandogya Upanishad itself does not refer to Brahman.[197][195] Deutsch & Dalvi (2004, p. 8): "Although the text does not use the term brahman, the Vedanta tradition is that the Existent (sat) referred to is no other than Brahman."
- ^ Up.I.18.219: "The renunciation of all actions becomes the means for discriminating the meaning of the word "Thou" since there is an [Upanisadic] teaching, "Having become calm, self-controlled [..., one sees Atman there in oneself]" (Bhr. Up. IV, 4, 23)."[239]
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- ^ Mayeda 1992, p. 190 (Up.I.18.174).
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- ^ Mayeda 1992, p. 195 (Up.I.18.2019).
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- ^ a b Mayeda 2006, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Potter 2008, pp. 218–219.
- ^ Dalal, Neil (2021), "Śaṅkara", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2021 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 28 October 2023
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- ^ Mayeda 1992, p. 172.
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- ^ Neil Dalal (2021), Shankara, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ^ a b The Bhamati and Vivarana Schools
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Ramanajua
- ^ a b c d e "Sankara Acarya Biography – Monastic Tradition". Archived from the original on 8 May 2012.
- ^ a b c d Jiddu Krishnamurti, Saanen 2nd Conversation with Swami Venkatesananda 26 July 1969
Further reading
- Fort, Andrew O. (1998). Jivanmukti in Transformation: Embodied Liberation in Advaita and Neo-Vedanta. SUNY Press.[ISBN missing]
- Fuller, C. J. (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
- Hirst, J. S. (2005). "A Questioning Approach: Learning from Shankara's Pedagogic Techniques". Contemporary Education Dialogue. 2 (2): 137–169. .
- Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (1954). "Śaṁkara's Arguments against the Buddhists". Philosophy East and West. 3 (4): 291–306. JSTOR 1397287. Archived from the originalon 28 June 2011.
- Nakamura, Hajime (1990) [1950]. A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (Reprint)
- Navone, J. J. (1956). "Sankara and the Vedic Tradition". Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 17 (2): 248–255. JSTOR 2104222.
- Olivelle, Patrick (1992). The Samnyasa Upanisads. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195070453.
- Pandey, S. L. (2000). "Pre-Sankara Advaita". In Chattopadhyana (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. II Part 2: Advaita Vedanta. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
- Reigle, David (2001). "The Original Sankaracarya" (PDF). Fohat. 5 (3): 57–60, 70–71.
- .
- Sankaracharya (1910). The Works of Sri Sankaracharya. Srirangam: Sri Vani Vilas Press. 20 vols.
- Whaling, Frank (1979). "Śankara and Buddhism". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 7 (1): 1–42. JSTOR 23440361.
External links
- Traditional biography of Shankara
- Works by or about Adi Shankara at Internet Archive
- Works by Adi Shankara at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- Works by Adi Shankara at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Adi Shankara at sankaracharya.org
- Adi Shankara at Curlie