Zheng He
Zheng He | |
---|---|
鄭和 | |
Born | Ma He 1371[1] |
Died | 1433 (aged 61–62) or 1435 (aged 63–64) |
Other names | Ma He Ma Sanbao Cheng Ho Mahmud Shams |
Occupations | Admiral, diplomat, explorer, and palace eunuch |
Era | Ming dynasty |
Zheng He | ||
---|---|---|
Tâi-lô | Tēnn Hô |
Zheng He (
As a favorite of the Yongle Emperor, whom Zheng assisted in the
Early life and family
Zheng He was born Ma He (馬和) to a
Zheng He was a great-great-great-grandson of
In the autumn of 1381, a
Capture, castration and service
Zheng He was captured by the Ming armies in Yunnan in 1381.[13] General Fu Youde saw Ma He on a road and approached him to inquire about the location of the Mongol pretender. Ma He responded defiantly by saying that the Mongol pretender had jumped into a lake. Then the general took him prisoner.[15] He was castrated between the ages of 10 and 14,[15][16] and placed in the service of the Prince of Yan.[16]
Ma He was sent to serve in the household of Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, who later became the Yongle Emperor.[17] Zhu Di was eleven years older than Ma.[18] Enslaved as a eunuch servant, Ma He eventually gained the confidence of Zhu Di, who, as his benefactor, gained the allegiance and loyalty of the young eunuch.[19] The prince had been governing Beiping (later Beijing) since 1380.[12] It was near the northern frontier with hostile Mongol tribes.[20] Ma spent his early life as a soldier on the northern frontier.[21] and often participated in Zhu Di's military campaigns against the Mongols.[22] On 2 March 1390, Ma accompanied the prince when he commanded his first expedition, which was a great victory, as the Mongol commander Naghachu surrendered as soon as he realized he had fallen into a trap.[23]
Eventually, he gained the confidence and trust of the prince.
Adulthood and military career
The power of the
goddess, having indeed been manifested in previous times, has been abundantly revealed in the present generation. In the midst of the rushing waters it happened that, when there was a hurricane, suddenly a divine lanternwas seen shining at the masthead, and as soon as that miraculous light appeared the danger was appeased, so that even in the peril of capsizing one felt reassured and that there was no cause for fear.
— Admiral Zheng He and his associates (Changle inscription) about witnessing
Zheng He's appearance as an adult was recorded: he was seven chi [note 2] tall, had a waist that was five chi in circumference, cheeks and a forehead that was high, a small nose, glaring eyes, teeth that were white and well-shaped as shells, and a voice that was as loud as a bell. It is also recorded that he had great knowledge about warfare and was well-accustomed to battle.[27]
The young eunuch eventually became a trusted adviser to the prince and assisted him when the
In 1402, Zhu Di's armies defeated the imperial forces and marched into Nanjing on 13 July 1402.[30] Zhu Di accepted the elevation to emperor four days later.[31] After ascending the throne as the Yongle Emperor, Zhu Di promoted Ma He as the Grand Director (太監, tàijiān) of the Directorate of Palace Servants (内宫監).[31] During the Chinese New Year on 11 February 1404, the Yongle Emperor conferred the surname "Zheng" to Ma He, because he had distinguished himself defending the city reservoir against imperial forces in 1399.[32] Another reason was that the eunuch commander also distinguished himself during the 1402 campaign to capture the capital, Nanjing.[33]
In the new administration, Zheng He served in the highest posts as Grand Director and later as Chief Envoy (正使; zhèngshǐ) during his sea voyages.[34] Over the next three decades he conducted seven of the voyages on behalf of the emperor , trading and collecting tribute in the western Pacific and Indian Oceans.
In 1424, Zheng He traveled to Palembang in Sumatra to confer an official seal[note 3] and letter of appointment upon Shi Jisun, who was placed in the office of Pacification Commissioner.[36] The Taizong Shilu 27 February 1424 entry reports that Shi Jisun had sent Qiu Yancheng as envoy to petition the approval of the succession from his father Shi Jinqing, who was the Pacification Commissioner of Palembang, and was given permission from the Yongle Emperor.[37] When Zheng He returned from Palembang, he found that the Yongle Emperor had died during his absence. On 7 September 1424, Zhu Gaozhi had inherited the throne as the Hongxi Emperor after the death of the Yongle Emperor on 12 August 1424.[38][39]
On 7 September 1424, the
On 15 May 1426, the Xuande Emperor ordered the Directorate of Ceremonial to send a letter to Zheng He to reprimand him for a transgression. Earlier, an official[note 4] petitioned the emperor to reward workmen who had built temples in Nanjing. The Xuande Emperor responded negatively to the official for charging the costs to the court instead of the monks themselves, but he realized that Zheng He and his associates had instigated the official. According to Dreyer (2007), the nature of the emperor's words indicated that Zheng He's behaviour in the situation was the last straw, but there is too little information about what had happened earlier. Nevertheless, the Xuande Emperor would eventually come to trust Zheng He.[45]
In 1430, the new Xuande Emperor appointed Zheng He to command over a seventh and final expedition into the "Western Ocean" (Indian Ocean). In 1431, Zheng He was bestowed with the title Sanbao Taijian (三寶太監), using his informal name Sanbao and the title of Grand Director.[46]
Expeditions
The
Zheng He was placed as the admiral in control of the huge fleet and armed forces that undertook the expeditions.[51] Wang Jinghong was appointed as second in command. Preparations were thorough and wide-ranging, including the use of so many linguists that a foreign language institute was established at Nanjing.[47] Zheng He's first voyage departed 11 July 1405, from Suzhou[52]: 203 and consisted of a fleet of 317[53][54][55] ships holding almost 28,000 crewmen.[53]
Zheng He's fleets visited
While Zheng He's fleet was unprecedented, the routes were not. His fleet followed long-established, well-mapped routes of trade between China and the
The fleet did not engage in conquest or colonization; though it included troops, their purpose was to demonstrate the Middle Kingdom's strength.
In 1424, the Yongle Emperor died. His successor, the
Some far-off countries pay their tribute to me at much expense and through great difficulties, all of which are by no means my own wish. Messages should be forwarded to them to reduce their tribute so as to avoid high and unnecessary expenses on both sides.[70]
They further violated longstanding Confucian principles. They were only made possible by (and therefore continued to represent) a triumph of the Ming's eunuch faction over the administration's
Although unmentioned in the official dynastic histories, Zheng He probably died during the treasure fleet's last voyage.
Zheng He led seven expeditions to the "Western" or Indian Ocean. Zheng He brought back to China many trophies and envoys from more than thirty kingdoms, including King
Zheng He wrote of his travels:
We have traversed more than 100,000 li of immense water spaces and have beheld in the ocean huge waves like mountains rising in the sky, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of light vapors, while our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds day and night, continued their course [as rapidly] as a star, traversing those savage waves as if we were treading a public thoroughfare....[72]
Sailing charts
Zheng He's sailing charts, the Mao Kun map, were published in a book entitled the Wubei Zhi (A Treatise on Armament Technology) written in 1621 and published in 1628 but traced back to Zheng He's and earlier voyages.[73] It was originally a strip map 20.5 cm by 560 cm that could be rolled up, but was divided into 40 pages which vary in scale from 7 miles/inch in the Nanjing area to 215 miles/inch in parts of the African coast.[65]
Investigation into folios 19V to 20R of the Mao Kun Map, which cover the Indian Ocean including South India, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and East Africa, suggests that the map is a composite of four maps, one for Sri Lanka, one for South India one for the Maldives and one for around 400 km of the East African coast, no further south than 6 degrees south of the Equator. Each of these maps is positioned at a different orientation to fit with the ocean currents and winds required of a sailing chart, rather than a formal map. The analysis also suggests that Arabic-speaking pilots with a detailed knowledge of the African coast were involved in the cartography.[74]
There is little attempt to provide an accurate 2-D representation; instead, the sailing instructions are given using a
Size of ships
According to Luo Maodeng 's novel Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi (Eunuch Sanbao Western Records Popular Romance, published 1597), the first expedition had:[75][76][77]
- "Treasure ships" (宝船, Bǎo Chuán) nine-masted, 44.4 by 18 zhang, about 127 metres (417 feet) long and 52 metres (171 feet) wide.
- Equine ships (馬船, Mǎ Chuán), carrying horses and tribute goods and repair material for the fleet, eight-masted, 37 by 15 zhang, about 103 m (338 ft) long and 42 m (138 ft) wide.
- Supply ships (粮船, Liáng Chuán), containing staple for the crew, seven-masted, 28 by 12 zhang, about 78 m (256 ft) long and 35 m (115 ft) wide.
- Transport ships (坐船, Zuò Chuán), six-masted, 24 by 9.4 zhang, about 67 m (220 ft) long and 25 m (82 ft) wide.
- Warships (战船, Zhàn Chuán), five-masted, 18 by 6.8 zhang, about 50 m (160 ft) long.
On the ships were navigators, explorers, sailors, doctors, workers, and soldiers, along with the translator and diarist Gong Zhen. Six more expeditions took place from 1407 to 1433, with fleets thought to be of comparable size.[78]
The largest ships in the fleet, the
Disputes of historical records of length
Edward L. Dreyer claims that Luo Maodeng's novel is unsuitable as historical evidence.[76] The novel contains a number of fantasy element; for example the ships were "constructed with divine help by the immortal Lu Ban".[84]
One explanation for the seemingly-inefficient size of the colossal ships was that the 44 zhang treasure ships were used only by the Emperor and imperial bureaucrats to travel along the Yangtze for court business, including reviewing Zheng He's expedition fleet. The Yangtze river, with its calmer waters, may have been navigable by these treasure ships. Zheng He, a court eunuch, would not have had the privilege in rank to command the largest of the ships, seaworthy or not. The main ships of Zheng He's fleet were instead six-masted 2000-liao ships.[85][86] That would give burthen of 500 tons and a displacement tonnage of about 800 tons.[85][87]
Traditional and popular accounts of Zheng He's voyages have described a great fleet of gigantic ships far larger than any other wooden ships in history. The most grandiose claims for Zheng He's 1405 fleet are entirely based on a calculation derived from an account that was written three centuries later and was accepted as fact by one modern writer; rejected by numerous naval experts.[88]: 128 There are even some sources that claim some of the treasure ships might have been as long as 183 m (600 ft).[89] The claims that the Chinese treasure ships reached such size is disputed because other 17th century Ming records stated that European East Indiamen and galleons were 30, 40, 50, and 60 zhang (90, 120, 150, and 180 m) in length.[90]
It is also possible that the measure of zhang (丈) used in the conversions was mistaken. The length of a Dutch ship recorded in the History of Ming was 30 zhang. If the zhang is taken to be 3.2 m, the Dutch ship would be 96 m long. Also the Dutch Hongyi cannon was recorded to be more than 2 zhang (6.4 m) long. Comparative study by Hu Xiaowei (2018) concluded that 1 zhang would be equal to 1.5–1.6 m, this means the Dutch ship would be 45–48 m long and the cannon would be 3–3.2 m long.[91] Taking 1.6 m for 1 zhang, Zheng He's 44 zhang treasure ship would be 70.4 m (230.97 ft) long and 28.8 m (94.49 ft) wide, or 22 zhang long and 9 zhang wide if the zhang is taken to be 3.2 m.[92] It is known that the measure unit during the Ming era was not unified: A measurement of East and West Pagoda in Quanzhou resulted in a zhang unit of 2.5–2.56 m.[93] According to Chen Cunren, one zhang in the Ming Dynasty is only half a zhang in modern times.[94]
Treasure Shipyard excavation
From 2003 to 2004, the Treasure Shipyard was excavated in northwestern
The 2003–2004 excavation also recovered two complete wooden rudderposts from the Treasure Shipyard, in addition to another recovered in 1957. They are made of teak and measure around 10 to 11 metres (33 to 36 ft) in length. Zhou Shide (1962) claimed that the first rudderpost recovered was proof of the enormous dimensions of the ships based on his calculations on how big the rudderblade would be. However Church (2010) points out that Zhou was using calculations based on modern steel propeller-driven ships, not wooden ships; as well as the fact that Zhou's hypothetical rudder shape was based on the flat-bottomed shachuan (沙船) ship type, not the sea-going fuchuan (福船). The rudderposts cannot be used to infer the actual size of the rudder blades. Church notes that in traditional wooden Chinese ships, rudderposts were necessarily long in order for them to extend from the water level up unto the ship deck, where it was controlled by the tiller. Church compares it with modern wooden junks built in the traditional Lümeimao ("green eyebrow", 綠眉毛) style, which also have rudderposts that are 11 metres (36 ft) long, but are only 31 metres (102 ft) in overall length.[95]
Death
One theory is that Admiral Zheng He died in 1433, during or shortly after his seventh voyage.[96] Another is that Zheng He continued to serve as the defender of Nanjing, and died in 1435.[97]
A tomb was built for Zheng He at the southern slope of Cattle Head Hill, Nanjing. The original tomb was a horseshoe-shaped grave. It is a cenotaph believed to contain his clothes and headgear. In 1985, the tomb was rebuilt following a Muslim style.[98]
Legacy
Zheng's voyages were long neglected in official Chinese histories but have become well known in China and abroad since the publication of Liang Qichao's Biography of Our Homeland's Great Navigator, Zheng He in 1904.[99][100]
Imperial China
In the decades after the last voyage, Imperial officials minimized the importance of Zheng He and his expeditions throughout the many regnal and dynastic histories they compiled. The information in the
State-sponsored Ming naval efforts declined dramatically after Zheng's voyages. Starting in the early 15th century, China experienced increasing pressure from the
However, missions from Southeastern Asia continued to arrive for decades. Depending on local conditions, they could reach such frequency that the court found it necessary to restrict them. The History of Ming records imperial edicts forbade Java, Champa, and Siam from sending their envoys more often than once every three years.[103]
Southeast Asia
Veneration
Among the
Malacca
The oldest and most important Chinese temple in Malacca is the 17th-century Cheng Hoon Teng, dedicated to Guanyin. During Dutch colonial rule, the head of the Cheng Hoon Temple was appointed as chief over the community's Chinese inhabitants.[103]
Following Zheng He's arrival, the sultan and the sultana of Malacca visited China at the head of over 540 of their subjects, bearing ample tribute. Sultan
Indonesia
The
In 1961, the Indonesian Islamic leader and scholar
Western scholarship
In the 1950s, historians such as John Fairbank and Joseph Needham popularized the idea that after Zheng He's voyages China turned away from the seas due to the Haijin edict and was isolated from European technological advancements. Modern historians point out that Chinese maritime commerce did not totally stop after Zheng He, that Chinese ships continued to participate in Southeast Asian commerce until the 19th century, and that active Chinese trading with India and East Africa continued long after the time of Zheng. Moreover, revisionist historians such as Jack Goldstone argue that the Zheng He voyages ended for practical reasons that did not reflect the technological level of China.[108] Although the Ming dynasty prohibited shipping with the Haijin edict, it was a policy of the Hongwu Emperor that long preceded Zheng He and the ban, so obviously disregarded by the Yongle Emperor, was eventually lifted entirely. However, the ban on maritime shipping forced countless numbers of people into smuggling and piracy. Neglect of the imperial navy and Nanjing dockyards after Zheng He's voyages left the coast highly vulnerable to Japanese wokou during the 16th century.[109][110]
Richard von Glahn, a
Cultural influence
Despite the official neglect, the adventures of the fleet captured the imagination of some Chinese with some writing novelizations of the voyages, such as the Romance of the Three-Jeweled Eunuch in 1597.[102]
On his travels, Zheng He built mosques[112] and also spread the worship of Mazu. He apparently never found time for a pilgrimage to Mecca but sent sailors there on his last voyage. He played an important part in developing relations between China and Islamic countries.[113][114] Zheng He also visited Muslim shrines of Islamic holy men in the Fujian.[citation needed]
In modern times, interest in Zheng He has revived substantially. In
Relics
- Zheng He built the Tianfei Palace (天妃宫; Tiānfēigōng; 'Palace of the Celestial Wife'), a temple in honor of the Mazu, in Nanjing after the fleet returned from its first western voyage in 1407.
- The "Deed of Foreign Connection and Exchange" (通番事跡) or "Tongfan Deed Stele" is located in the Tianfei Palace in Liuhe, Taicang, whence the expeditions first departed. The stele was submerged and lost but has been rebuilt.
- To thank the Changle County, Fujian Province as well before they left on their last voyage. At the renovated temple, they raised a stele, "A Record of Tianfei Showing Her Presence and Power" (天妃靈應之記; Tiānfēi Líng Yīng zhī Jì), discussing their earlier voyages.[115]
- The
- Zheng He's tomb in Nanjing has been repaired and a small museum built next to it, but his body was buried at sea off the Malabar Coast near Calicut, in western India.[119] However, his sword and other personal possessions were interred in a Muslim tomb inscribed in Arabic. The tomb of Zheng He's assistant Hong Bao was recently unearthed in Nanjing as well.
- Seven large sunken ships were found in the sea near Dongsha Island, which were confirmed to belong to Zheng He's fleet. The types of the seven sunken ships were Shachuan (沙船), Fuchuan (福船), and Zhanzuochuan (戰座船).[120]
Commemoration
In the People's Republic of China, 11 July is Maritime Day (中国航海日, Zhōngguó Hánghǎi Rì) and is devoted to the memory of Zheng He's first voyage. Initially Kunming Changshui International Airport was to be named Zheng He International Airport.
In 2015,
Zheng He is the namesake of the
The People's Liberation Army Navy ship Zheng He (AX-81) is a Chinese training ship named for him. Like her namesake, she serves as a goodwill ambassador for China, becoming the first Chinese Navy ship to visit the United States in 1989 and completing a circumnavigation of the globe in 2012.[123]
The proposed sample-return spacecraft Tianwen-2 was originally named ZhengHe. Its mission to explore Near-Earth asteroid 2016 HO3 is scheduled to launch in 2024.
Gallery
-
Zheng He's tomb in Nanjing
-
Museum to honor Zheng He, Nanjing
-
Zheng He wax statue in the Quanzhou Maritime Museum
See also
- Chang Yuchun – Chinese general
- Chinese exploration
- CMA CGM Zheng He – container ship built in 2015
- Fei Xin – Ming dynasty explorer and writer
- Galle Trilingual Inscription – stone tablet erected in 1411 in Galle, Sri Lanka
- Hong Bao – Chinese explorer
- Hui – Ethnoreligious group of China
- Ma Huan – Chinese translator, voyager and writer
- Ming dynasty – Imperial dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644
- Ming Veritable Records – Imperial annals of Ming dynasty emperors
- Romon U-Park – Amusement park in Ningbo, China
- Timeline of the Ming treasure voyages
- Zhou Man – Chinese admiral
- Zhu Di– 3rd emperor of the Ming dynasty (r. 1402–1424)
- Man-cheti – 14th century cotton stuff from India
Notes
- ISBN 978-7-301-07154-0.
- ^ A chi is thought to vary between 26.5–30 cm / 10.5–12 inches [25]
- ^ The Taizong Shilu 27 February 1424 entry reports that Zheng He was sent to deliver the seal because the old seal was destroyed in a fire. The Xuanzong Shilu 17 September 1425 entry reports that Zhang Funama delivered a seal, because the old seal was destroyed in a fire. The later Mingshi compilers seem to have combined the accounts, remarking that Shi Jisun's succession was approved in 1424 and that a new seal was delivered in 1425, suggesting that only one seal was destroyed by fire. [35]
- ^ Unnamed official who served as a Department Director under the Ministry of Works, who had departed for Nanjing to supervise the renovation of government buildings and to reward the skilled workers.[44]
References
Citations
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- ^ Dreyer 2007, pp. 11, 148; Mills 1970, p. 5; Ray 1987, p. 66; Levathes 1996, p. 61.
- ^ Dreyer 2007, p. 11; Mills 1970, p. 5; Levathes 1996, p. 62; Perkins 2000, p. 621.
- ^ Dreyer (2007, pp. 148 & 150) "The inscriptions [...] devotion to Tianfei, the goddess of seafarers, had become the dominant strand in his eclectic religious heritage."
- ISBN 978-0-300-16656-9.
- )
- )
- ^ Mills 1970, p. 5.
- ^ Dreyer 2007, p. 11; Levathes 1996, pp. 61–62.
- ^ Dreyer 2007, p. 11; Mills 1970, p. 5; Levathes 1996, pp. 61–62.
- ^ a b c d Dreyer 2007, p. 12.
- ^ a b c d Levathes 1996, p. 62.
- ^ Levathes 1996, pp. 62–63.
- ^ a b Levathes 1996, p. 58.
- ^ a b Dreyer 2007, pp. 12 & 16.
- ^ Dreyer 2007, p. 12; Levathes 1996, p. 58.
- ^ a b Dreyer 2007, p. 18.
- ^ Hoon, H.S (2012). Zheng He's art of collaboration: Understanding the legendary Chinese admiral from a management perspective. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 32, 155.
- ^ Levathes 1996, p. 58; Dreyer 2007, p. 18.
- ^ Levathes 1996, p. 58; Dreyer 2007, p. 16.
- ^ Dreyer 2007, p. 18; Levathes 1996, p. 64.
- ^ Levathes 1996, pp. 64–66.
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- ^ ISBN 9780646548265.
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- ^ Mills 1970, p. 6.
- ^ Lin; et al., eds. (2005). Zheng He's Voyages Down the Western Seas. Compiled by the Information Office of Fujian Provincial People's Government. China Intercontinental Press. p. 45.
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- ^ 中國時報 (1 January 2004). "打撈鄭和沉船 撈船 有宣示主權意義 再造鐵達尼傳奇 內政部委託國內學術單位進行海洋考古作業 初期探勘將花費數億元" (in Chinese). National Sun Yat-sen University. Archived from the original on 21 November 2022.
- ^ "Theme Park, Museum, Zoo Industry News for Professionals". Blooloop. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015.
- ^ "China: Two New Multimedia Shows at Romon U-Park".
- ^ Zhang, Xiaomin (17 April 2012). "Naval training ship going round the globe". China Daily.
Sources
- Chang, Kuei-Sheng (July–September 1974). "The Maritime Scene in China at the Dawn of Great European Discoveries". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 94 (3): 347–359. JSTOR 600069.
- Church, Sally K. (2005). "Zheng He: An Investigation into the Plausibility of 450-ft Treasure Ships" (PDF). Monumenta Serica Institute. 53: 1–43. S2CID 161434221.
- Cunren, Chen (2008), 被误读的远行: 郑和下西洋与马哥孛罗来华考 (The Misunderstood Journey: Zheng He's Voyages to the West and Marco Polo's Visit to China), 广西师范大学出版社 (Guangxi Normal University Press), ISBN 9787563370764
- Deng, Gang (2005). Chinese Maritime Activities and Socioeconomic Development, c. 2100 BC – 1900 AD. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29212-5.
- Dreyer, Edward L. (2007). Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming, 1405–1433. Library of World Biography. New York: Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-08443-9.
- JSTOR 4527170.
- Levathes, Louise (1996). When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405–1433. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511207-8.
- Lewis, Archibald (December 1973), "Maritime Skills in the Indian Ocean 1368–1500", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 16 (2/3): 238–264, JSTOR 3596216
- Mills, J.V.G. (1970). Ying-yai Sheng-lan, The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores (1433). Translated by Feng, Ch'eng Chun. Introduction, notes and appendices by J.V.G. Mills. White Lotus Press. ISBN 978-974-8496-78-8.
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- Perkins, Dorothy (2000). Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture. New York: Roundtable Press. ISBN 978-0-8160-2693-7.
- Ray, Haraprasad (1987). "An Analysis of the Chinese Maritime Voyages into the Indian Ocean During Early Ming Dynasty and Their Raison d'Etre". China Report. 23 (1): 65–87. S2CID 154116680.
- Sien, Chia Lin; Church, Sally K., eds. (2012). Zheng He and the Afro-Asian World. Melaka: Perbadanan Muzium. ISBN 978-967-11386-0-1.
- Church, Sally K.; Gebhardt, John C.; Little, Terry H. (2012). "A Naval Architectural Analysis of the Plausibility of 450-ft Treasure Ships". In Sien, Chia Lin; Church, Sally K. (eds.). Zheng He and the Afro-Asian World. Melaka: Perbadanan Muzium. ISBN 978-967-11386-0-1.
- Rivers, P.J. (2012). "A Nautical Perspective on Cheng Ho, Admiral of the Western Oceans Concerning the Ming Voyages". In Sien, Chia Lin; Church, Sally K. (eds.). Zheng He and the Afro-Asian World. Melaka: Perbadanan Muzium. ISBN 978-967-11386-0-1.
- Pereira, Clifford J. (2012). "Zheng He and the African Horizon: An Investigative Study into the Chinese Geography of Early Fifteenth-Century Eastern Africa". In Sien, Chia Lin; Church, Sally K. (eds.). Zheng He and the Afro-Asian World. Melaka: Perbadanan Muzium. ISBN 978-967-11386-0-1.
- Church, Sally K.; Gebhardt, John C.; Little, Terry H. (2012). "A Naval Architectural Analysis of the Plausibility of 450-ft Treasure Ships". In Sien, Chia Lin; Church, Sally K. (eds.). Zheng He and the Afro-Asian World. Melaka: Perbadanan Muzium.
- Wake, Christopher (December 1997). "The Great Ocean-Going Ships of Southern China in the Age of Chinese Maritime Voyaging to India, Twelfth to Fifteenth Centuries". International Journal of Maritime History. 9 (2): 51–81. S2CID 130906334.
- Xiaowei, Hu (2018), "郑和宝船尺度新考 – 从泉州东西塔的尺度谈起 (A New Research on the Scale of Zheng He's Treasure Ship – From the Scale of Quanzhou East-West Pagoda)", 海交史研究 (Journal of Maritime History Studies) (2): 107–116
Further reading
- Chan, Hok-lam (1998). "The Chien-wen, Yung-lo, Hung-hsi, and Hsüan-te reigns, 1399–1435". The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
- Su, Ming-Yang (2005). Seven epic voyages of Zheng He in Ming China, 1405–1433: facts, fiction and fabrication. Torrance, CA: self-published. OCLC 62515238.
- Shipping News: Zheng He's Sexcentenary – China Heritage Newsletter, June 2005, ISSN 1833-8461. Published by the China Heritage Project of The Australian National University.
- Viviano, Frank (July 2005). "China's Great Armada". National Geographic. Vol. 208, no. 1. pp. 28–53.
External links
- World History Encyclopedia – The Seven Voyages of Zheng He
- Zheng He – The Chinese Muslim Admiral
- Zheng He 600th Anniversary
- BBC radio programme "Swimming Dragons".
- TIME magazine special feature on Zheng He (August 2001)
- Virtual exhibition from elibraryhub.com
- Ship imitates ancient vessel navigated by Zheng He at peopledaily.com (25 September 2006)
- Kahn, Joseph (2005). "China Has an Ancient Mariner to Tell You About". The New York Times.
- Newsletter, in Chinese, on academic research on the Zheng He voyages