List of Latin-script digraphs

This is a list of digraphs used in various Latin alphabets. In the list, letters with diacritics are arranged in alphabetical order according to their base, e.g. ⟨å⟩ is alphabetised with ⟨a⟩, not at the end of the alphabet, as it would be in Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. Substantially-modified letters, such as ⟨ſ⟩ (a variant of ⟨s⟩) and ⟨ɔ⟩ (based on ⟨o⟩), are placed at the end.

, are capitalised on the second letter, i.e. ⟨mb⟩ becomes ⟨mB⟩).

Apostrophe^[1]

⟨ʼb⟩ (capital ⟨ʼB⟩) is used in Bari for /ɓ/.

⟨ʼd⟩ (capital ⟨ʼD⟩) is used in Bari for /ɗ/.

⟨ʼm⟩ is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark or yin tone /m/. It is also often written as /ʔm/.

⟨ʼn⟩ is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark /n/.

⟨ʼng⟩ is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark /ŋ/.

⟨ʼny⟩ is used in the Wu MiniDict Romanisation for dark /ȵ/.

⟨ʼy⟩ (capital ⟨ʼY⟩) is used in Bari and Hausa (in Nigeria) for /ʔʲ/, but in Niger, Hausa ⟨ʼy⟩ is replaced with ⟨ƴ ⟩.

A

⟨aʼ⟩ is used in Taa for the glottalized or creaky-voiced vowel /a̰/.

⟨aa⟩ is used in

, it is used for /a/, which contrasts with ⟨a⟩ /ɐ/.

⟨ae⟩ is used in Irish for /eː/ between two "broad" (velarized) consonants, e.g. Gael /ɡeːlˠ/ "a Gael".

In

ligature ⟨æ

⟩.

In Modern English, Latin loanwords with ⟨ae⟩ are generally pronounced with /iː/ (e.g. Caesar), prompting Noah Webster to shorten this to ⟨e⟩ in his 1806 spelling reform for American English.

In German, ⟨ae⟩ is a variant of ⟨ä⟩ found in some proper names or in contexts where ⟨ä⟩ is unavailable.

In

Dutch

, ⟨ae⟩ is an old spelling variant of ⟨aa⟩ but now only occurs in names of people or (less often) places and in a few loanwords from Greek and Latin.

In Zhuang, ⟨ae⟩ represents /a/ (⟨a⟩ represents /aː/).

In Revised Romanization of Korean, ⟨ae⟩ represents /ɛ/.

⟨ãe⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐ̃ĩ̯/.

⟨ah⟩ is used in

/ɑː/.

⟨ai⟩ is used in many languages, typically representing the diphthong /aɪ/. In English, due to the Great Vowel Shift, it represents /eɪ/ as in pain and rain, while in unstressed syllables it may represent /ə/, e.g. bargain and certain(ly). In French, it represents /ɛ/. In Irish, it represents /a/ between a broad and a slender consonant. In the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish, it represents /eː/, mostly in loanwords from English such as paint.^[1]

⟨aí⟩ is used in Irish for /iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨aî⟩ is used in French for /ɛː/, as in aînesse /ɛːnɛs/ or maître /mɛːtʁ/.

⟨ái⟩ is used in Irish for /aː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨ãi⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐ̃ĩ̯/, usually spelt ⟨ãe⟩.

⟨am⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐ̃ũ̯/ word finally, /ɐ̃/ before a consonant, and /am/ before a vowel. In French, it represents /ɑ̃/.

⟨âm⟩ is used in Portuguese for a stressed /ɐ̃/ before a consonant.

⟨an⟩ is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese it is used for /ɐ̃/ before a consonant. In French it represents /ɑ̃/ (/an/ before a vowel). In Breton it represents /ɑ̃n/.

⟨aⁿ⟩ is used in Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī for /ã/.

⟨ân⟩ is used in Portuguese for a stressed /ɐ̃/ before a consonant.

⟨än⟩ is used in

⟩.

⟨ån⟩ is used in Walloon, for the nasal vowel /ɔ̃/.

⟨aŋ⟩ is used in

for the nasal vowel /ã/

⟨ao⟩ is used in many languages, such as Piedmontese and Mandarin Pinyin, to represent /au̯/. In Irish, it represents /iː/ (/eː/ in Munster) between broad consonants. In French, it is found in a few words such as paon representing /ɑ̃/ and as paonne representing /a/. In Malagasy, it represents /o/. In Wymysorys, it represents /œʏ̯/.

⟨ão⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐ̃ũ̯/.

⟨aq⟩ is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel /aˤ/.

⟨au⟩ is used in

and restaurant.

In German and Dutch, it represents /au/ and /ʌu/, respectively (/au/ in some northern and /ɔu/ in some southern Dutch and some Flemish dialects).

In French, it represents /o/ or sometimes /ɔ/.

In Icelandic and Norwegian it represents /œy/ and /æʉ/, respectively.

In several Romanizations of Wu Chinese, it represents /ɔ/.

In the Cornish Kernowek Standard, it is used for /ɔ(ː)/, as in caul "cabbage" or dauncya "to dance".^[1]

⟨äu⟩ is used in

).

⟨aw⟩ is used in English in ways that parallel English ⟨au⟩, though it appears more often at the end of a word. In Cornish, it represents /aʊ/ or /æʊ/.^[1][2][3][4] In Welsh, it represents /au/.

⟨ay⟩ is used in English in ways that parallel ⟨ai⟩, though it appears more often at the end of a word. In French, it represents /ɛj/ before a vowel (as in ayant) and /ɛ.i/ before a consonant (as in pays). In Cornish, it represents /aɪ/, /əɪ/, /ɛː/, or /eː/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨a_e⟩ (a

) is used in English for /eɪ/.

B

⟨bb⟩ is used in

it is /bʱ/.

⟨bd⟩ is used in English for /d/ in a few words of Greek origin, such as bdellatomy. When not initial, it represents /bd/, as in abdicate.

⟨bf⟩ is used in

for the /b̪͡v/.

⟨bh⟩ is used in transcriptions of

, ⟨b⟩ is /b/ and ⟨bh⟩ is /ɓ/.

⟨bm⟩ is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded /m/; that is, it represents either /m/ or /mː/ (in any position); /ᵇm/ (before a consonant or finally); or /bm/ (before a vowel); examples are mabm ('mother') or hebma ('this').^[1][2][3][4]

⟨bp⟩ is used in

of ⟨p⟩, to represent /bˠ/ (beside ⟨a, o, u⟩) and /bʲ/ (beside ⟨e, i⟩).

⟨bv⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the voiced labiodental affricate /b̪͡v/.

⟨bz⟩ is used in

cluster /bz͎/.

C

⟨cc⟩ is used in Andean Spanish for loanwords from

slang, ⟨cc⟩ can sometimes replace the letters ⟨ck⟩ or ⟨ct⟩ at the ends of words, such as with thicc, protecc, succ and fucc.

⟨cg⟩ was used for [ddʒ] or [gg] in Old English (ecg in Old English sounded like 'edge' in Modern English, while frocga sounded like 'froga'), where both are

voiceless dental click

/ǀ/.

⟨ch⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it can represent /tʃ/, /k/, /ʃ/, /x/ or /h/. See article.

⟨çh⟩ is used in Manx for /tʃ/, as a distinction from ⟨ch⟩ which is used for /x/.

⟨čh⟩ is used in

Latin alphabet, it was used for /tʃʼ/.

⟨ci⟩ is used in the

⟩ appearing in other situations. In Romanian, it represents /tʃ/. The digraph is found at the end of a word (deci, atunci, copaci) or before the letters a, o, or u (ciorba, ciuleandra); the /tʃ/ sound made by the letter c in front of the letters e or i becomes /k/ in front of the three aforementioned vowels, making the addition of the letter i necessary.

⟨cj⟩ is used in Friulian for /c/ such as in words cjocolate /cokoˈlate/. It's also used in local orthographies of Lombard to represent /tʃ/ derived from Latin ⟨cl⟩.

⟨ck⟩ is used in many

, it was replaced by ⟨k-k⟩ for syllabification. The new spelling rules allow only syllabification of the ⟨ck⟩ as a whole:

• Old spelling: Säcke: Säk-ke ('sacks')
• New spelling: Säcke: Sä-cke

Among the modern Germanic languages, ⟨ck⟩ is used mainly in

Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic, Norwegian, and other West Germanic languages in the Netherlands and Belgium. Compare the word nickel, which is the same in many of these languages except for the customary ⟨ck⟩ or ⟨kk⟩ spelling. The word is nickel in English and Swedish, Nickel in German, and nikkel

in Afrikaans, Danish, Dutch, Icelandic and Norwegian.

It was also used in the Tindall orthography of

voiceless dental click

/ǀ/ (equivalent to ⟨cg⟩).

It is also used in Cornish for /k/ at the end of a syllable after a short vowel; only in loanwords (mostly from English) in the Standard Written Form (SWF),^[4] more widely in Kernowek Standard.^[1]

⟨cn⟩ is used in

. When not initial, it represents /kn/, as in acne.

⟨cö⟩ is used in Seri for a labialized velar plosive, /kʷ/. It is placed between ⟨c⟩ and ⟨d⟩ in alphabetical order.

⟨cr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ʈʂ/.

⟨cs⟩ is used in the Hungarian for a voiceless postalveolar affricate, /tʃ/. It is considered a distinct letter, named csé, and is placed between ⟨c⟩ and ⟨d⟩ in alphabetical order. Examples of words with ⟨cs⟩ include csak ('only'), csésze ('cup'), cső ('pipe'), csípős ('peppery').

⟨ct⟩ is used in English for /t/ in a few words of Greek origin, such as ctenoid. When not initial, it represents /kt/, as in act.

⟨cu⟩ is used in languages such as

) for /kʷ/. In Nahuatl, ⟨cu⟩ is used before a vowel, whereas ⟨uc⟩ is used after a vowel.

⟨cw⟩ is used in modern scholarly editions of Old English for the sound /kw/, which was spelled ⟨cƿ⟩, ⟨cuu⟩ or ⟨cu⟩ in manuscripts. In Middle English these were all replaced by Latin ⟨qu⟩.

⟨cx⟩ is used in

⟩, which represents /tʃ/.

⟨cz⟩ is used in

Czech, and Czechia.

D

⟨dc⟩ is used in

prevoiced ejective

/d͡tʃʼ/.

⟨dd⟩ is used in

Modern Welsh

.

⟨dg⟩ is used in English for /dʒ/ in certain contexts, such as with judgement and hedge

⟨dh⟩ is used in the

In early traditional Cornish ⟨ȝ⟩ (yogh), and later ⟨th⟩, were used for this purpose. Edward Lhuyd is credited for introducing the grapheme to Cornish orthography in 1707 in his Archaeologia Britannica. In Irish it represents /ɣ/ (beside ⟨a, o, u⟩) or /j/ (beside ⟨e, i⟩); at the beginning of a word it shows the lenition of ⟨d⟩, e.g. mo dhoras /mˠə ɣɔɾˠəsˠ/ "my door" (cf. doras /d̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "door").

In the

pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, ⟨dh⟩ was used for the voiced alveolar implosive /ɗ/ in Pular. It is currently written ⟨ɗ⟩. In the orthography of Shona it is the opposite: ⟨dh⟩ represents /d/, and ⟨d⟩ /ɗ/. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages

, ⟨dh⟩ represents a dental stop, /t̪/.

In addition, ⟨dh⟩ is used in various romanization systems. In transcriptions of

ﺫ⟩, which represents /ð/ in Modern Standard Arabic

.

⟨dj⟩ is used in

Pitjantjatjara

, it represents a postalveolar stop such as /ṯ/ or /ḏ/; this sound is also written ⟨dy⟩, ⟨tj⟩, ⟨ty⟩, or ⟨c⟩. It is also formerly used in Indonesian as /d͡ʒ/.

⟨dl⟩ is used in Hmong’s Romanized Popular Alphabet for /tˡ/. In Navajo, it represents /tɬ/, and in Xhosa it represents /ɮ̈/. In Hadza it is ejective /cʎʼ/.

⟨dł⟩ is used in Tlingit for /tɬ/ (in Alaska, ⟨dl⟩ is used instead).

⟨dm⟩ is used in

/t͡pn͡m/.

⟨dn⟩ is used in

⟨dp⟩ is used in

/t͡p/.

⟨dq⟩ is used for the click /ᶢǃ/ in Naro.

⟨dr⟩ is used in Malagasy for /ɖʐ/. See ⟨tr⟩. It is used in Fijian for 'ndr' nasalized (/ɳɖr/).

⟨ds⟩ is used in

/d͡tsʼ/.

⟨dt⟩ is used in

of ⟨t⟩, to represent /d̪ˠ/ (beside ⟨a, o, u⟩) and /tʲ/ (beside ⟨e, i⟩).

⟨dv⟩ is used in the

/d͡ð/.

⟨dx⟩ is used in some

uvularized plosive /d͡tᵡ/.

⟨dy⟩ is used in

, it represents a postalveolar stop such as /ṯ/ or /ḏ/. This sound is also written ⟨tj⟩, ⟨dj⟩, ⟨ty⟩, ⟨c⟩, or ⟨j⟩.

⟨dz⟩ is used in several languages, often to represent /d͡z/. See article.

⟨dź⟩ is used in the Polish and Sorbian alphabets for /d͡ʑ/, the voiced alveolo-palatal affricate, as in dźwięk /d͡ʑvʲɛŋk/. ⟨dź⟩ is never written before a vowel (⟨dzi⟩ is used instead, as in dziecko /d͡ʑɛt͡skɔ/ 'child').

⟨dż⟩ is used in the Polish for a voiced retroflex affricate /d͡ʐ/ (e.g. dżem^ⓘ 'jam').

⟨

to represent /d͡ʒ/. See article.

E

⟨e′⟩ is used in Taa, where it represents the glottalised or creaky vowel /ḛ/.

⟨ea⟩ is used in many

.

⟨eá⟩ is used in Irish for /aː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨éa⟩ is used in Irish for /eː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨ee⟩ represents a long mid vowel in a number of languages. In

, ⟨ee⟩ is used for plain /e/, as ⟨e⟩ stands for /ɯ/.

⟨eh⟩ is used in

, ⟨eh⟩ represents /eː/, as in Reh.

⟨ei⟩ This digraph was taken over from

Greater Lisbon

, so do ⟨éi⟩ and ⟨êi⟩, but /ej ~ e/ or /ɛj/ in Brazil, East Timor, Macau, rest of Portugal, and Portuguese-speaking African countries,

In

, ⟨ei⟩ represents /ɛ/, as in seiche.

In Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language it is used to transcribe the sound /eː/.

⟨eî⟩ is used in French for /ɛː/, as in reître /ʁɛːtʁ/.

⟨éi⟩ is used in Irish for /eː/ between slender consonants.

⟨ej⟩ is used in Swedish in some short words, such as leja /leːja/ or nej /nɛj/.

⟨em⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word and /ẽ/ before a consonant. In French orthography, it represents a /ɑ̃/ when it is followed by a b or a p.

⟨ém⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word.

⟨êm⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word and /ẽ/ before a consonant.

⟨en⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯/ at the end of a word followed or not by an /s/ as in hífen or hifens; and for /ẽ/ before a consonant within a word. In French, it represents /ɑ̃/ or /ɛ̃/.

⟨én⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ɐĩ̯ ~ ẽĩ̯/ before a consonant.

⟨ên⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ẽ/ before a consonant.

⟨eo⟩ is used in

.

⟨eq⟩ is used in Taa for the pharyngealized vowel /eˤ/.

⟨eu⟩ is found in many

, it represents /ɯ/.

⟨eû⟩ is used in French for /ø/, as in jeûne /ʒøn/.

⟨ew⟩ is used in English for /juː/ as in few and flew. An exception is the pronunciation /oʊ/ in sew, leading to the heteronym sewer,(/ˈsuːər/, 'drain') vs sewer (/ˈsoʊər/, 'one who sews'). In Cornish, it stands for /ɛʊ/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨êw⟩ is used in the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish to refer to a sound that can be either /ɛʊ/ or /oʊ/. This distribution can also be written ⟨ôw⟩.^[1]

⟨ey⟩ is used in English for a variety of sounds, including /eɪ/ in they, /iː/ in key, and /aɪ/ in geyser. In Faroese, it represents the diphthong /ɛɪ/. In Cornish, it represents the diphthong /ɛɪ/ or /əɪ/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨e_e⟩ (a

, historically /e:/ but now most commonly realised as /i:/.

⟨eⁿ⟩ is used for /ẽ/ in Hokkien Pe̍h-ōe-jī.

F

⟨ff⟩, which may be written as the

, vowel nasalisation was represented by a following ⟨ff⟩. This notation was reformed during the 18th century, though proper names retain the former convention, which leads to occasional mispronunciation.

⟨fh⟩ is used in Irish and Scottish Gaelic for the lenition of ⟨f⟩. This happens to be silent, so that ⟨fh⟩ in Gaelic corresponds to no sound at all, e.g. the Irish phrase cá fhad /kaː ˈad̪ˠ/ "how long", where fhad is the lenited form of fad /fˠad̪ˠ/ "long".

⟨fx⟩ in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ɸʔ/.

G

⟨gʻ⟩ is used in Uzbek to represent /ɣ/.

⟨gb⟩ is used in some

, /ɡ͡b/.

⟨gc⟩ is used in languages, such as

of ⟨c⟩, to represent /g/ (beside ⟨a, o, u⟩) and /ɟ/ (beside ⟨e, i⟩).

⟨ge⟩ is used in French for /ʒ/ before ⟨e, i⟩ as in geôle /ʒol/.

⟨gg⟩ is used in

, ⟨gg⟩ is an etymological spelling representing an /tʃ/ at the end of a word which is the unvoicing of an ancient /dʒ/.

⟨gh⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it can be silent or represent /ɡ/ or /f/. See article.

⟨gi⟩ is used in

).

⟨gj⟩ is used in

in 1878, the digraph ⟨gj⟩ had been used instead; and it remained in use till the beginning of the 20th century.

⟨gk⟩ is used in

γ

is used for /ɣ/ ~ /ʝ/.

⟨gl⟩ is used in Italian and some African languages for /ʎ/.

⟨gm⟩ is used in English for /m/ in a few words of Greek origin, such as phlegm and paradigm. Between vowels, it simply represents /ɡm/, as in paradigmatic.

⟨gn⟩ is used in

as well as the spelling to ⟨mn⟩.

In

Norwegian and Swedish

, ⟨gn⟩ represents /ŋn/ in monosyllabic words like agn, and between two syllables, tegne. Initially, it represents /ɡn/, e.g. Swedish gnista /ˈɡnɪsta/.

⟨gñ⟩ was used in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific for /ŋ/. It is one of several variants of the digraph ⟨ñg⟩, and is preserved in the name of the town of

.

⟨go⟩ is used in Piedmontese for /ɡw/ (like the “gu” in Guatemala) .

⟨gq⟩ is used in languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, for the click /ᶢǃ/. In the Taa language, it represents /ɢ/.

⟨gr⟩ is used in Xhosa for /ɣ̈/.

⟨gu⟩ is used in English, Spanish, French, Portuguese and Catalan for /ɡ/ before front vowels ⟨i e⟩ (⟨i e y⟩ in English and French) where a "soft g" pronunciation (English /dʒ/; Spanish /x/; French, Portuguese and Catalan /ʒ/) would otherwise occur. In English, it can also be used to represent /ɡw/. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, it is used for /ɡʷ/.

⟨gü⟩ is used in Spanish and Catalan for /ɡw/ before front vowels ⟨i e⟩ where the digraph ⟨gu⟩ would otherwise represent /ɡ/.

⟨gv⟩ is used for /kʷ/ in Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the labialized fricative /ɣʷ/.

⟨gw⟩ is used in various languages for /ɡʷ/, and in

it represents /kʷ/.

⟨ǥw⟩, capital ⟨Ǥw⟩ (or ⟨G̱w⟩), is used in

⟩.

⟨gx⟩ is used in languages, such as

⟩, which represents /dʒ/.

⟨gy⟩ is used in Hungarian for a voiced palatal plosive /ɟ/. In Hungarian, the letter's name is gyé. It is considered a single letter, and acronyms keep the digraph intact. The letter appears frequently in Hungarian words, such as the word for "Hungarian" itself: magyar. In the old orthography of Bouyei, it was used for /tɕ/.

⟨gǃ⟩ is used in

/ᶢǃ/.

⟨gǀ⟩ is used in

/ᶢǀ/.

⟨gǁ⟩ is used in

/ᶢǁ/.

⟨gǂ⟩ is used in

/ᶢǂ/.

H

⟨hh⟩ is used in

⟩, which represents /x/.

⟨hj⟩ is used in the Italian dialect of Albanian for /xʲ/. In Faroese, it represents either /tʃ/ or /j/, and in Swedish, Danish and Norwegian, it represents /j/. In Icelandic it is used to denote /ç/.

⟨hl⟩ is used for /ɬ/ or /l̥/ in various alphabets, such as the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong (/ɬ/) and Icelandic (/l̥/). See also reduction of Old English /hl/.

⟨hm⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /m̥/.

⟨hn⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /n̥/. It is also used in Icelandic to denote the same phoneme. See also reduction of Old English /hn/.

⟨hr⟩ is used for /ɣ/ in Bouyei. In Icelandic it is used for /r̥/. See also reduction of Old English /hr/.

⟨hs⟩ is used in the

⟨x⟩.

⟨hu⟩ is used primarily in the Classical Nahuatl language, in which it represents the /w/ sound before a vowel; for example, Wikipedia in Nahuatl is written Huiquipedia. After a vowel, ⟨uh⟩ is used. In the Ossete Latin alphabet, ⟨hu⟩ was used for /ʁʷ/, similar to French roi. The sequence ⟨hu⟩ is also found in Spanish words such as huevo or hueso; however, in Spanish this is not a digraph but a simple sequence of silent ⟨h⟩ and the vowel ⟨u⟩.

⟨hv⟩ is used Faroese and Icelandic for /kv/ (often /kf/), generally in wh-words, but also in other words, such as Faroese hvonn. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is used for the supposed fricative /ɣ͜β/.

⟨hw⟩ is used in modern editions of Old English for /hw/, originally spelled ⟨huu⟩ or ⟨hƿ⟩ (the latter with the wynn letter). In its descendants in modern English, it is now spelled ⟨wh⟩ (see there for more details). It is used in some orthographies of Cornish for /ʍ/.^[3][4]

⟨hx⟩ is used in

⟩, which represents /x/.

⟨hy⟩ is used in Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language to transcribe the sound /ç/, which is the syllable hi before a y-vowel, such as hya, hyu, and hyo, which appear in Chinese loanwords.

I

⟨i′⟩ is used in Taa to represent the glottalized or creaky vowel /ḭ/.

⟨ia⟩ is used in Irish for the diphthong /iə/.

⟨ie⟩ is used in English, where it usually represents the /aɪ/ sound as in pries and allied or the /iː/ sound as in priest and rallied. Followed by an ⟨r⟩, these vowels follow the standard changes to /aɪə/ and /ɪə/, as in brier and bier. Unique pronunciations are /ɪ/ in sieve, /ɛ/ in friend, and /eɪ/ in lingerie. Unstressed it can represent /jə/, as in spaniel and conscience, or /ɪ/ or /ə/ as in mischief and hurriedly. It also can represent many vowel combinations, including /aɪə/ in diet and client, /aɪɛ/ in diester and quiescent, /iːə/ in alien and skier, /iːɛ/ in oriental and hygienic, and /iː.iː/ in British medieval.

In

Yi, where ⟨e⟩ stands for /ɛ/. In Old English ⟨ie⟩ was one of the common diphthongs, the umlauted

version of ⟨ea⟩ and ⟨eo⟩. Its value is not entirely clear, and in Middle English it had become /e/.

⟨îe⟩ is used in

Afrikaans

for /əːə/.

⟨ig⟩ is used in

coda

.

⟨ih⟩, is used in

Hanyu Pinyin

.

⟨ii⟩ is used in many languages such as Finnish (e.g. Riikka, Niinistö, Siitala, Riikkeli), Italian (e.g. Riina), Estonian (e.g. Riik), Scots (e.g. Auld Nii, Iisay), with phonemic long vowels for /iː/.

⟨ij⟩ is used in Dutch for /ɛi/. See article.

⟨il⟩ is used in French for /j/, historically /ʎ/, as in ail /aj/ (approximately eye in English) "garlic". Can also be written as ⟨ille⟩ as in vieille /vjɛj/.

⟨im⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ĩ/.

⟨ím⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ĩ/ before a consonant.

⟨in⟩ is used in many languages to write a nasal vowel. In Portuguese before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is /ĩ/, while in French it is /ɛ̃/.

⟨ín⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ĩ/ before a consonant.

⟨în⟩ is used in French to write a vowel sound /ɛ̃/ that was once followed by a historical ⟨s⟩, as in vous vîntes /vu vɛ̃t/ "you came".

⟨iŋ⟩ is used in

for the nasal vowel /ĩ/.

⟨io⟩ is used in Irish for /ɪ/, /ʊ/, and /iː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨ío⟩ is used in Irish for /iː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨iq⟩ is used in Taa to represent the pharyngealized vowel /iˤ/.

⟨iu⟩ is used in Irish for /ʊ/ between a slender and a broad consonant. In Mandarin pinyin, it is /i̯ou̯/ after a consonant. (In initial position, this is spelled ⟨you⟩).

⟨iú⟩ is used in Irish for /uː/ between a slender and a broad consonant.

⟨iw⟩ is used in Welsh and Cornish for the diphthong /iʊ/ or /ɪʊ/.^[2][3][4]

⟨ix⟩ is used in Catalan for /ʃ/ (Eastern Catalan) or /jʃ/ (Western Catalan) after a vowel.

⟨i_e⟩ (a

, historically /iː/ but now most commonly realised as /aɪ/.

J

⟨jh⟩ is used in

Devanāgarī

letter झ /dʒʱ/. In ⟩ in Spanish, /x/.

⟨jj⟩ is used in

it is ejective /tʃʼ/.

⟨jö⟩ is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized velar fricative, /xʷ/. It is placed between J and L in alphabetical order.

⟨jr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ɖʐ/.

⟨jx⟩ is used in

⟩, which represents /ʒ/.

K

⟨kg⟩ is used for /kχ/ in southern African languages such as

Kalahari

is spelled Kgalagadi /kχalaχadi/ in Setswana.

⟨kh⟩, in transcriptions of

Latin alphabet, it was used for /kʼ/.

⟨kj⟩ is used Swedish and Norwegian for /ɕ/ or /ç/. See also ⟨tj⟩. In Faroese, it represents /tʃ/. In the romanization of Macedonian, it represents /c/.

⟨kk⟩ is used in romanized Korean for the fortis sound /k͈/, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective /kʼ/, and in Cypriot Arabic for /kʰː/.

⟨kl⟩ is used in Zulu to write a sound variously realized as /kʟ̥ʼ/ or /kxʼ/.

⟨km⟩ is used in

/k͡pŋ͡m/.

⟨kn⟩ is used in English to write the word-initial sound /n/ (

/kŋ/.

⟨kp⟩ is used as a letter in some

voiceless labial-velar plosive

/k͡p/.

⟨kr⟩ is used in Xhosa for /kxʼ/.

⟨ks⟩ is used in Cornish for either /ks/ or /ɡz/.^[3][4]

⟨ku⟩ is used in Purépecha for /kʷ/. It also had that value in the Ossete Latin alphabet.

⟨kv⟩ is used for /k^wh/ in some dialects of Zhuang.

⟨kw⟩ is used in various languages for the

*/ɡʷ/.

⟨ḵw⟩ is used in Alaskan

⟩.

⟨kx⟩ in used in

/kxʼ/.

⟨ky⟩ is used in

for /tʃʰ/.

⟨kz⟩ is used in Esperanto for /ɡz/, equivalent to Polish ⟨gz⟩.

L

⟨lh⟩, in

.

⟨

, it represents /j/ in initial position e.g. ljus.

The sound /ʎ/ is written ⟨gl⟩ in Italian, in Castilian Spanish and Catalan as ⟨ll⟩, in Portuguese as ⟨lh⟩, in some Hungarian dialects as ⟨lly⟩, and in Latvian as ⟨ļ⟩. In Czech and Slovak, it is often transcribed as ⟨ľ⟩; it is used more frequently in the latter language. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01C7 (LJ), U+01C8 (Lj) and U+01C9 (lj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Љљ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

⟨

l·l

⟩ are used in several languages. See article.

⟨ḷḷ⟩ is used in Asturian for a sound that was historically /ʎ/ but which is now an affricate, [t͡s], [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ].

⟨lr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ɭ /.

⟨lv⟩ is used in

Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated

/l͜β/.

⟨lw⟩ is used for /lʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨lx⟩ in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀl/.

⟨ly⟩ is used in Hungarian. See article.

M

⟨mb⟩, in many

reduction of /mb/). In Standard Zhuang and in Bouyei, ⟨mb⟩ is used for /ɓ/. ⟨mb⟩ (capital ⟨mB⟩) is used word initially in Irish, as the eclipsis

of ⟨b⟩, to represent /mˠ/ (beside ⟨a, o, u⟩) and /mʲ/ (beside ⟨e, i⟩); e.g. ár mbád /aːɾˠ mˠaːd̪ˠ/ "our boat" (cf. /bˠaːd̪ˠ/ "boat"), i mBaile Átha Cliath "in Dublin".

⟨md⟩ is used in

prenasalized

/n͡mt͡p/.

⟨mf⟩, in many

languages

, represents /mf/ or /ᵐf/.

⟨mg⟩ is used in

prenasalized

/ŋ͡mk͡p/.

⟨mh⟩ is used in

murmured /m̤/. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, initial ⟨mh⟩- indicates an even tone on a syllable beginning in /m/, which is otherwise spelled ⟨m⟩-. In several languages, such as Gogo

, it's a voiceless /m̥/.

⟨ml⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /mˡ/.

⟨mm⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized /ˀm/. It is used in Cornish for an optionally pre-occluded /m/; that is, it is pronounced either /m/ or /mː/ (in any position); /ᵇm/ (before a consonant or finally); or /bm/ (before a vowel); examples are mamm ('mother') or hemma ('this').^[2][3][4]

⟨mn⟩ is used in English to write the word-initial sound /n/ in a few words of Greek origin, such as mnemonic. When final, it represents /m/, as in damn or /im/ as in hymn, and between vowels it represents /m/ as in damning, or /mn/ as in damnation (see /mn/-reduction). In French it represents /n/, as in automne and condamner.

⟨mp⟩, in many

β is used for /v/. In Mpumpong of Cameroon

, ⟨mp⟩ is a plain /p/.

⟨mq⟩ is used in

pharyngealized or perhaps creaky

/m̰/.

⟨mt⟩ is used in

prenasalized

/n̪͡mt̪͡p/.

⟨mv⟩, in many

languages

, represents /mv/ or /ᵐv/.

⟨mw⟩ is used for /mʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨mx⟩ is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀm/.

N

⟨nʼ⟩ is used in Xhosa and Shona for /ŋ/. Since ⟨ʼ⟩ is not a letter in either language, ⟨nʼ⟩ is not technically a digraph.

⟨nb⟩ is used in

Yi. It is also used in Fula

in Guinea for /ᵐb/ (written as ⟨mb⟩ in other countries).

⟨nc⟩ is used in various alphabets. In the

Tharaka it is /ntʃ/. In Xhosa and Zulu

it represents the click /ᵑǀ/.

⟨nd⟩ (capital ⟨Nd⟩) is used in many

languages to represent /nd/ or /ⁿd/. In Standard Zhuang and Bouyei, itrepresents /ɗ/. ⟨nd⟩ (capital ⟨nD⟩) is used word initially in Irish, as the eclipsis of ⟨d⟩, to represent /n̪ˠ/ (beside ⟨a, o, u⟩) and /n̠ʲ/ (beside ⟨e, i⟩), e.g. ár ndoras /aːɾˠ ˈn̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "our door" (cf. doras /ˈd̪ˠɔɾˠəsˠ/ "door"), i nDoire "in Derry

".

⟨nf⟩, equivalent to ⟨mf⟩ for /mf/ or /ᵐf/. In Rangi ⟨nf⟩ is /ᵐf/ while ⟨mf⟩ is /m.f/.

⟨ng⟩, in

prenasalized /ɡ/ (/ⁿɡ/).^[11][12]

For the development of the pronunciation of this digraph in English, see

G-dropping

.

archiphonemic "velar fricative", which, as a velar fricative does not exist in Standard Finnish, is assimilated to the preceding /ŋ/, producing /ŋː/. (No /ɡ/ is involved at any point, despite the spelling ⟨ng⟩). The digraph ⟨ng⟩ is not an independent letter, but it is an exception to the phonemic principle

, one of the few in standard Finnish.

⟨ng⟩ (capital ⟨nG⟩) is used word-initially in Irish, as the eclipsis of ⟨g⟩, to represent /ŋ/ (beside ⟨a, o, u⟩) or /ɲ/ (beside ⟨e, i⟩), e.g. ár ngalar /aːɾˠ ˈŋalˠəɾˠ/ "our illness" (cf. /ˈɡalˠəɾˠ/), i nGaillimh "in Galway".

In Tagalog and other

ngg⟩. Furthermore, ⟨ng⟩ is also used for a common genitive

particle pronounced /naŋ/, to differentiate it from an adverbial particle nang.

In Uzbek, it is considered as a separate letter, being the last (twenty-ninth) letter of the Uzbek alphabet. It is followed by the apostrophe (tutuq belgisi).

⟨ńg⟩ is used in

Central Alaskan Yup'ik

to write the voiceless nasal sound /ŋ̊/.

⟨ñg⟩, or more precisely ⟨n͠g⟩, was a digraph in several Spanish-derived orthographies of the Pacific, such as

Sagñay

), ⟨ng̃⟩, and a ⟨g̃⟩, that is preceded by a vowel (but not a consonant). It has since been replaced by the trigraph ⟨ngg⟩ or ⟨ng⟩ (see above).

⟨ngʼ⟩ is used for /ŋ/ in Swahili and languages with Swahili-based orthographies. Since ⟨ʼ⟩ is not a letter in Swahili, ⟨ngʼ⟩ is technically a digraph, not a trigraph.

⟨nh⟩ is used in several languages. See article.

⟨ni⟩ in Polish, it usually represents ɲ whenever it precedes a vowel, and ɲi whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ń appearing in other situations. (In some cases it may represent also ɲj before a vowel; for a better description, when, see the relevant section in the article on Polish orthography).

⟨

ligature ⟨њ

⟩. While there are dedicated Unicode codepoints, U+01CA (NJ), U+01CB (Nj) and U+01CC (nj), these are included for backwards compatibility (with legacy encodings for Serbo-Croatian which kept a one-to-one correspondence with Cyrillic Њњ) and modern texts use a sequence of Basic Latin characters.

In Faroese, it generally represents /ɲ/, although in some words it represent /nj/, like in banjo. It is also used in some languages of Africa and Oceania where it represents a prenazalized voiced postalveolar affricate or fricative, /ⁿdʒ/ or /ⁿʒ/. In Malagasy, it represents /ⁿdz/.

Other letters and digraphs of the

Slovakian), ⟨ñ⟩ (in Spanish), ⟨nh⟩ (in Portuguese and Occitan), ⟨gn⟩ (in Italian and French), and ⟨ny⟩ (in Hungarian

, among others).

⟨nk⟩ is used in many

Pitjantjatjara

, it distinguishes a prenasalized velar stop, /ŋ͡k ~ ŋ͡ɡ/, from the nasal /ŋ/.

⟨nm⟩ is used in

Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated

/n͡m/.

⟨ńm⟩ is used in

Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated

/n̪͡m/.

⟨nn⟩ is used in

ligature ⟨ñ⟩ and represents the sound /ɲ/. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final -nn indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in /n/, which is otherwise spelled -n. It is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized /ˀn/. In Piedmontese, it is /ŋn/ in the middle of a word, and /n/ at the end. In Cornish, it is used for an optionally pre-occluded /n/; that is, it is pronounced either /n/ or /nː/ (in any position); /ᵈn/ (before a consonant or finally); or /dn/ (before a vowel); examples are penn ('head') or pennow ('heads').^[2][3][4]

⟨np⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /mb/.

⟨nq⟩ is used in various alphabets. In the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents the sound /ɴɢ/. In Xhosa and Zulu it represents the click /ᵑǃ/. In the Gwoyeu Romatzyh romanization of Mandarin Chinese, final -nq indicates a falling tone on a syllable ending in /ŋ/, which is otherwise spelled -ng.

⟨nr⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, where it represents the sound /ɳɖ/. In the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages it is /ɳ /.

⟨ns⟩, in many

languages

, represents /ns/ or /ⁿs/.

⟨nt⟩ is a letter present in many

τ for /d/, as δ

is used for /ð/.

⟨nv⟩, equivalent to ⟨mv⟩ for /mv/ or /ᵐv/.

⟨nw⟩ is used in Igbo for /ŋʷ/, and in Arrernte for /nʷ/.

⟨nx⟩ is used for the click /ᵑǁ/ in Xhosa and Zulu, and in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀn/.

⟨ny⟩ is used in several languages for /ɲ/. See article.

⟨nz⟩, in many

languages

, represents /nz/ ~ /ⁿz/, /ndz/ ~ /ⁿdz/, /nʒ/ ~ /ⁿʒ/, or /ndʒ/ ~ /ⁿdʒ/.

⟨nǃ⟩ is used in

alveolar nasal click

/ᵑǃ/.

⟨nǀ⟩ is used in

dental nasal click

/ᵑǀ/.

⟨nǁ⟩ is used in

lateral nasal click

/ᵑǁ/.

⟨nǂ⟩ is used in

palatal nasal click

/ᵑǂ/.

⟨n-⟩ is used for medial /ŋ/ in Piedmontese.

O

⟨o′⟩ is used for /o/ and /ø/ in

ў

⟩). Technically it is not a digraph in Uzbek, since ⟨ʻ⟩ is not a letter of the Uzbek alphabet, but rather a typographic convention for a diacritic. In handwriting the letter is written as ⟨õ⟩.

It is also used in Taa, for the glottalized or creaky vowel /o̰/.

⟨oa⟩ is used in English, where it commonly represents the /oʊ/ sound as in road, coal, boast, coaxing, etc. In Middle English, where the digraph originated, it represented /ɔː/, a pronunciation retained in the word broad and derivatives, and when the digraph is followed by an "r", as in soar and bezoar. The letters also represent two vowels, as in koala /oʊ.ɑː/, boas /oʊ.ə/, coaxial /oʊ.æ/, oasis /oʊ.eɪ/, and doable /uː.ə/. In Malagasy, it is occasionally used for /o/.

⟨oe⟩ is found in many

Ligatured to ⟨œ⟩ in French, it stands for the vowels /œ/ (as in œil /œj/) and /e/ (as in œsophage /ezɔfaʒ ~ øzɔfaʒ/). It is an alternative way to write ⟨ö⟩ or ⟨ø⟩ in German or Scandinavian languages when this character is unavailable. In romanization of Wu Chinese and in Royal Thai General System of Transcription, it represents /ɤ

/. In Cantonese Pinyin it represents the vowel /ɵ ~ œː/, while in the Jyutping romanisation of Cantonese it represents /œː/, and in Zhuang it is used for /o/ (⟨o⟩ is used for /oː/). In Piedmontese, it is /wɛ/. In the Kernewek Kemmyn orthography of Cornish, it is used for a phoneme which is [oː] long, [oˑ] mid-length, and [ɤ] short.^[16]

⟨oê⟩ is used in French to write the vowel sound /wa/ in a few words before what had historically been an ⟨s⟩, mostly in words derived from poêle /pwal/ "stove". The diacriticless variant, ⟨oe⟩, rarely represents this sound except in words related to moelle /mwal/ (rarely spelt moëlle).

⟨ôe⟩ is used in Afrikaans for the vowel /ɔː/.

⟨õe⟩ is used in Portuguese for /õĩ̯/. It is used in plural forms of some words ended in ⟨ão⟩, such as anão–anões and campeão–campeões.

⟨oh⟩ is used in Taa, for the breathy or murmured vowel /o̤/.

⟨oi⟩ is used in various languages. In English, it represents the /ɔɪ̯/ sound as in coin and join. In French, it represents /wa/, which was historically – and still is in some cases – written ⟨oy⟩. In Irish it is used for /ɛ/, /ɔ/, /ɪ/, /əi̯/, /iː/, /oː/ between a broad and a slender consonant. In Piedmontese, it is /ui̯/.

⟨oí⟩ is used in Irish for /iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨oî⟩ is used in French to write /wa/ before what had historically been an ⟨s⟩, as in boîtier or cloître.

⟨ói⟩ is used in Irish for /oː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨òi⟩ is used in Piedmontese for /oi̯/.

⟨om⟩ is used in Portuguese for /õ/, and in French to write /ɔ̃/.

⟨ôm⟩ is used in Brazilian Portuguese for /õ/ before a consonant.

⟨on⟩ is used in Portuguese for /õ/ before a consonant, and in French to write /ɔ̃/.

⟨ôn⟩ is used in Portuguese for /õ/ before a consonant.

⟨ön⟩ is used in

oin

.

⟨oo⟩ is used in many languages. In English, it generally represents sounds which historically descend from the Middle English pronunciation /oː/. After the Great Vowel Shift, this came to typically represent /uː/ as in "moon" and "food". Subsequently, in a handful of common words like "good" and "flood" the vowel was shortened to ⟨/u/⟩, and after the Middle English FOOT–STRUT split, these became /ʊ/ and /ʌ/ respectively. Like in Middle English, the digraph's pronunciation is /oː/ in most other languages. In German and Dutch, the digraph represents /oː/. In Cornish, it represents either /oː/ or /uː/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨oq⟩ Is used in Taa,for the pharyngealized vowel /oˤ/.

⟨or⟩, in

Daighi tongiong pingim, represents mid central vowel /ə/ or close-mid back rounded vowel /o/ in Taiwanese Hokkien.^[17][18]

⟨ou⟩ is used in English for the diphthong /aʊ/, as in out /aʊt/. This spelling is generally used before consonants, with ⟨ow⟩ being used instead before vowels and at the ends of words. Occasionally ⟨ou⟩ may also represent other vowels – /ʌ/ as in trouble, /oʊ/ as in soul, /ʊ/ as in would, /uː/ as in group, or /juː/ as in the alternate American pronunciation of coupon. The ⟨ou⟩ in out originally represented /uː/, as in French, and its pronunciation has mostly changed as part of the Great Vowel Shift. However, the /uː/ sound was kept before ⟨p⟩.

In

approximant consonant

/w/, as in oui /wi/ "yes".

In Portuguese this digraph stands for the close-mid back rounded vowel /o/ or for the falling diphthong /ou/, according to dialect.

⟨ou⟩ is used In Hepburn romanization of the Japanese language to transcribe the sound /oː/.

⟨oû⟩ is used in French to write the vowel sound /u/ before what had historically been an ⟨s⟩, as in soûl /su/ "drunk" (also spelt soul).

⟨ow⟩, in English, usually represents the /aʊ/ sound as in coward, sundowner, and now or the /oʊ/ sound, as in froward, landowner, and know. An exceptional pronunciation is /ɒ/ in knowledge and rowlock. There are many English heteronyms distinguished only by the pronunciation of this digraph, like: bow (front of ship or weapon), bower (a dwelling or string player), lower (to frown or drop), mow (to grimace or cut), row (a dispute or line-up), shower (rain or presenter), sow (a pig or to seed), tower (a building or towboat). In Cornish, this represents the diphthong /ɔʊ/^[4] or /oʊ/;^[1][2][3] before vowels, it can also represent /uː/.^[1][2][3][4]

⟨ôw⟩ is used in the Kernowek Standard orthography of Cornish to refer to a sound that can be either /ɛʊ/ or /oʊ/. This distribution can also be written ⟨êw⟩.^[1]

⟨oy⟩ is found in many languages. In English and Faroese, ⟨oy⟩ represents the diphthong /ɔɪ/. Examples in English include toy and annoy. In Cornish, it represents the diphthong /oɪ/^[1][2][3]~/ɔɪ/^[4]; in the words oy ('egg') and moy ('much'), it can also be pronounced /uɪ/^[1][2][3]~/ʊɪ/^[4].

⟨oŷ⟩ is an obsolete digraph once used in French.

⟨øy⟩ is used in Norwegian for /øʏ/.

⟨o_e⟩ (a

split digraph) indicates an English 'long o'

, historically /ɔ:/ but now most commonly realised as /oʊ/.

P

⟨pf⟩ is used in German for /pf/, e.g. Pferd "horse", Apfel "apple", and Knopf "button". In English, usually in recent loan words from German, it generally represents /f/, such as in Pfizer.

⟨ph⟩ in used in English for /f/, mostly in words derived from Greek. In Irish and Welsh it represents the lenition/Aspirate mutation of ⟨p⟩.

⟨pl⟩ is used in the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, for /pˡ/.

⟨pm⟩ is used for /ᵖm/ in Arrernte.

⟨pn⟩ is used in English for /n/ initially in words of Greek origin such as pneumatic.

⟨pp⟩ is used in romanized Korean for the fortis sound /p͈/, and in Cypriot Arabic for /pʰː/.

⟨ps⟩ is used in English for /s/ initially in words of Greek origin such as psyche. In

whistled sibilant

cluster /ps͎/.

⟨pt⟩ is used in several languages for /t/ in words of Greek origin, where it was /pt/, e.g. in English pterosaur /ˈtɛrəsɔːr/.

⟨pw⟩ is used in Arrernte for /pʷ/.

⟨py⟩ is used in Cypriot Arabic for /pc/.

Q

⟨qg⟩ is used in

voiceless alveolar click

/ǃ/.

⟨qh⟩ is used in various alphabets. In

Quechua and the Romanized Popular Alphabet used to write Hmong, it represents /qʰ/. In Xhosa

, it represents the click /ǃʰ/.

⟨qk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of

voiceless alveolar click

/ǃ/ (equivalent to ⟨qg⟩).

⟨qq⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for ejective /qʼ/. In Hadza it represents the glottalized click /ᵑǃˀ/.

⟨qu⟩ is used in

wh⟩, due to Grimm's law changing kʷ > xʷ (written ⟨hw⟩), and Middle English spelling change switching ⟨hw⟩ to ⟨wh⟩. In English, it represents /k/ in words derived from those languages (e.g., quiche), and /kw/ in other words, including borrowings from Latin (e.g., quantity). In German, it represents /kv/. In the Ossetian Latin alphabet, it was used for /qʷ/. In Vietnamese it is used to represent /kw/ or /w/. In Cornish, it represents /kw/.^[19]

⟨qv⟩ is used in Bouyei for glottalized /ˀw/.

⟨qw⟩ is used in some languages for /qʷ/. In Mi'kmaq it represents /xʷ/. In the Kernowek Standard and Standard Written Form orthographies for Revived Cornish, it represents /kw/.^[1][2][4]

⟨qy⟩ is used in Bouyei for glottalized /ˀj/.

R

⟨rd⟩ is used in the

Pitjantjatjara for a retroflex stop, /ʈ/. In Norwegian and Swedish it represents voiced retroflex plosive

, [ɖ].

⟨rh⟩ is used in

retroflex flap

, /ɽ/.

⟨rl⟩ is used in the

Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish, for a retroflex lateral, written /ɭ/ in the IPA. In Greenlandic

, it represents /ɬː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

⟨rm⟩ is used in Inuktitut for /ɴm/.

⟨rn⟩ represents the retroflex nasal /ɳ/ in

Pitjantjatjara (see transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages), as well in Norwegian and Swedish. In Greenlandic, it represents /ɴ/. In Inuktitut

, it represents /ɴn/.

⟨rp⟩ is used in Greenlandic for /pː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component.

⟨rr⟩ is used in

alveolar trill. It is a letter in the Albanian alphabet

.

In several European languages, such as

Central Alaskan Yup'ik it is used for /χ/. In Cornish, it can represent either /rː/, /ɾʰ/, or /ɹ/.^[4]

⟨rs⟩ was equivalent to ⟨rz⟩ and stood for /r̝/ (modern ř) in medieval Czech. In Greenlandic, it represents /sː/ as the result of an assimilation of a consonant cluster with a uvular consonant as the first component. In Norwegian and Swedish, it represents voiceless retroflex fricative, [ʂ].

⟨rt⟩ is used in Australian Aboriginal languages such as

Pitjantjatjara, as well in Norwegian and Swedish

, for a retroflex stop /ʈ/.

⟨rw⟩ is used for /ɻʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨rz⟩ is used in

voiceless consonant (⟨ch, k, p, t⟩) or end of a word, ⟨rz⟩ devoices to [ʂ], as in przed /ˈpʂɛt/ ^ⓘ

"before".

S

⟨sc⟩ is used in

Old English

it usually represented /ʃ/.

⟨sç⟩ is used in French for /s/ in a few verb forms such as simple past acquiesça /akjɛsa/. It is also used in Portuguese as in the imperative/conjunctive form of verbs ending with ⟨scer⟩: crescer cresça. Still pronounced /s/ in Brazilian Portuguese, in European Portuguese this changed to /ʃ/ in the early 20th century, although in careful speech it can be /ʃs/.

⟨sg⟩ is used in Piedmontese for /ʒ/.

⟨sh⟩ is used in several languages. In English, it represents /ʃ/. See separate article. See also ⟨ſh⟩ below, which has the capitalized forms SH and ŞH.

⟨si⟩ is used in English for /ʒ/ in words such as fusion (see

yod-coalescence). In Polish, it represents /ɕ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and /ɕi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or at the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ⟨ś⟩ appearing in other situations. In Welsh

⟨si⟩ is used for the sound /ʃ/ as in siocled /ʃɔklɛd/ ('chocolate').

⟨sj⟩ is used

sje sound /ɧ/ (see also ⟨sk⟩) and in Faroese, Danish, Norwegian and Dutch to write Voiceless postalveolar fricative

/ʃ/.

⟨sk⟩ is used in

sje sound /ɧ/. It takes by rule this sound value before the front vowels (⟨e, i, y, ä, ö⟩) word or root initially (as in sked (spoon)), while normally representing /sk/ in other positions. In Norwegian and Faroese, it is used to write voiceless postalveolar fricative

/ʃ/ (only in front of ⟨i, y, ei, øy/oy⟩).

⟨sl⟩ is used in

lateral fricative /ɬ/. (⟨sl⟩ is used in the French tradition to transcribe /ɬ/ in other languages as well, as in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages

.)

⟨sp⟩ is used in German for /ʃp/ as in Spaß /ʃpaːs/ instead of using ⟨schp⟩.

⟨sr⟩ is used in Kosraean for /ʂ/.

⟨ss⟩ is used in

Central Alaskan Yup'ik, where ⟨s⟩ transcribes /z/ between vowels (and elsewhere in the case of Yup'ik), ⟨ss⟩ is used for /s/ in that position (/sː/ in Italian and also in some cases in Cornish^[4]); English sometimes also follows this convention. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound /s͈/. In Cypriot Arabic

it is used for /sʰː/.

Also to note, there are spellings of words with ⟨ss⟩ as opposed to them with just one ⟨s⟩, varied in different types of English. For the word focus, in British English the 3rd person singular, the past participle and the present participle are spelled with ⟨ss⟩ (i.e. focusses, focussed and focussing) whereas in American English and usually Canadian and Australian English they are spelled with one ⟨s⟩ (i.e. focuses, focused and focusing).

⟨st⟩ is used in German for /ʃt/ as in Stadt /ʃtat/ instead of using ⟨scht⟩ (or ⟨cht⟩). In some parts of northern Germany, the pronunciation /st/ (as in English) is still quite common in the local dialect.

⟨sv⟩ is used in

ȿ

⟩ from 1931 to 1955.

⟨sx⟩ in used in

an unofficial surrogate of ⟨ŝ

⟩, that represents /ʃ/.

⟨sy⟩ represents /ʃ/ in Malay and Tagalog.

⟨sz⟩ is used in several languages. See article.

⟨s-c⟩ and ⟨s-cc⟩ are used in Piedmontese for the sequence /stʃ/.

⟨s-g⟩ and ⟨s-gg⟩ are used in Piedmontese for the sequence /zdʒ/.

T

⟨tc⟩ is used for the palatal click /ǂ/ in

Juǀʼhoan

.

⟨tf⟩ is used in the

voiceless dental affricate

/t͡θ/

⟨tg⟩ is used for /tχ/ in Naro. In Catalan, it represents /d͡ʒ/. In Romansh orthographies it represents the Alveolo-palatal consonant /tɕ/.

⟨

Pronunciation of English th

.

⟨ti⟩, before a vowel, is usually pronounced /sj/ in French and /tsj/ in German and is commonly /ʃ/ in English, especially in the suffix -tion.

⟨tj⟩ is used in

Pitjantjatjara, it represents a postalveolar stop, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet

as /ṯ/ or /ḏ/ depending on voicing. This sound is also written ⟨dj⟩, ⟨ty⟩, ⟨dy⟩, ⟨c⟩, or ⟨j⟩. In Catalan it represents /d͡ʒ/. In

ejective

affricate /tʃʼ/.

⟨tk⟩ is used in

ejective

/tᵡʼ/.

⟨tl⟩ is used in various orthographies for the voiceless alveolar lateral affricate /tɬ/.

⟨tł⟩ is used in the transcription of

Athabascan languages

for a lateral affricate /tɬ/ or /tɬʰ/.

⟨tm⟩ is used in

Valencian

).

⟨tn⟩ is used for a prestopped nasal /ᵗn/ in

Yélî Dnye

.

⟨tp⟩ is used in

Yélî Dnye for doubly articulated

/t̪͡p/.

⟨tr⟩ generally represents a sound like a

Truk lagoon, now spelled ⟨chuuk⟩. For instance, in Malagasy it represents /tʂ/. In southern dialects of Vietnamese, ⟨tr⟩ represents a voiceless retroflex affricate /tʂ/. In the northern dialects, this sound is pronounced /tɕ/, just like what ⟨ch⟩ represents. ⟨tr⟩ was formerly considered a distinct letter of the Vietnamese alphabet

, but today is not.

⟨ts⟩ is used in the Basque, where it represents an apical voiceless alveolar affricate /t̺s̺/. It contrasts with ⟨tz⟩, which is laminal /t̻s̻/. It is mainly used to latinize the letter Tse (Cyrillic) (ц) In Hausa, ⟨ts⟩ represents an alveolar ejective fricative /sʼ/ or affricate /tsʼ/), depending on dialect. It is considered a distinct letter, and placed between ⟨t⟩ and ⟨u⟩ in alphabetical order. It is also used in Catalan for /t͡s/. It is also used in Hausa Boko. In central-western Asturian it's used for /t͡s/.

The

unaspirated voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/. Wade-Giles also uses ⟨ts'⟩ for the aspirated equivalent /tsʰ/. These are equivalent to Pinyin ⟨z⟩ and ⟨c⟩, respectively. The Hepburn romanization of Japanese uses ⟨ts⟩ for a voiceless alveolar affricate /ts/). In native Japanese words, this sound only occurs before ⟨u⟩, but it may occur before other vowels in loanwords. Other romanization systems write /tsu/ as ⟨tu⟩. ⟨Ts⟩ in Tagalog is used for /tʃ/. The sequence ⟨ts⟩ occurs in English, but it has no special function and simply represents a sequence of ⟨t⟩ and ⟨s⟩. It occurs word-initially only in some loanwords, such as tsunami and tsar

. Most English-speakers do not pronounce a /t/ in such words and pronounce them as if they were spelled ⟨sunami⟩ and ⟨sar⟩ or ⟨zar⟩, respectively.

⟨ts̃⟩ was used in medieval^[citation needed] Basque and in Azkue's Basque dictionary^[20] for a voiceless postalveolar affricate /t͡ʃ/; this is now represented by ⟨tx⟩.

⟨tt⟩ is used in Basque for /c/, and in romanized Kabyle for /ts/. In romanized Korean, it represents the fortis sound /t͈/, in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is ejective /tʼ/, and in Cypriot Arabic, it represents /tʰː/.

⟨tw⟩ is used for /tʷ/ in Arrernte.

⟨tx⟩ is used in

uvularized

-release /tᵡ/.

⟨ty⟩ is used in the

Massachusett orthography. In Shona, it represents /tʃk/. In Tagalog it represents /tʃ/. In the transcription of Australian Aboriginal languages such as Warlpiri, and Arrernte, it represents a postalveolar stop, either voiceless /ṯ/ or voiced /ḏ/. (This sound is also written ⟨tj⟩, ⟨dj⟩, ⟨dy⟩, ⟨c⟩, and ⟨j⟩). In Cypriot Arabic

, it represents /c/.

⟨tz⟩ is used in

laminal and contrasts with the apical affricate represented by ⟨ts⟩. It is also used in Catalan to represent the voiced alveolar affricate

/d͡z/. In

ejective

affricate /tsʼ/. For its use in the Wade–Giles system of Romanization of Chinese, see Wade–Giles → Syllabic consonants.

U

⟨u′⟩ is used in Taa for the glottalized or creaky vowel /ṵ/.

⟨uc⟩ is used in

Nahuatl

for /kʷ/ before a consonant. Before a vowel, ⟨cu⟩ is used.

⟨ue⟩ is found in many languages. In English, it represents /juː/ or /uː/ as in cue or true, respectively. In German, it is /ʏ/ or /yː/ (equivalent to ⟨ü⟩), appearing mainly in proper nouns. In Cantonese Romanisation, it represents /yː/ in a non-initial position.

⟨ûe⟩ is used in Afrikaans to represent /œː/.

⟨ug⟩ is used in

Central Alaskan Yup'ik

for /ɣʷ/.

⟨uh⟩ is used in Taa for the breathy or

Nahuatl

, it is used for /w/ before a consonant. Before a vowel, ⟨hu⟩ is used.

⟨ui⟩ is used in

Scots it represents /ø/, e.g. bluid "blood", duin "done", muin "moon" and spuin "spoon". In English, when used as a digraph, it represents /uː/ in fruit, juice, suit and pursuit. However, after ⟨g⟩, the ⟨u⟩ functions as a modifier (marking ⟨g⟩ as /ɡ/ rather than /dʒ/), e.g. guild, guilty, sanguine, Guinea

, guide etc.), it is also used for other sounds, in cases of unusual etymological spelling, e.g. circuit, biscuit, build.

⟨uí⟩ is used in Irish for /iː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨úi⟩ is used in Irish for /uː/ between a broad and a slender consonant.

⟨um⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ũ/, and in French to write /œ̃/ (only before a consonant and at the end of a word).

⟨úm⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ũ/ before a consonant.

⟨un⟩ is used in many languages for a nasal vowel. In Portuguese before a consonant, and in many West African languages, it is /ũ/, while in French it is /œ̃/, or among the younger generation /ɛ̃/. In pinyin, /u̯ən/ is spelled ⟨un⟩ after a consonant, ⟨wen⟩ initially.

⟨ún⟩ is used in Portuguese for /ũ/ before a consonant.

⟨ün⟩ is used in

Tibetan Pinyin

for /ỹ/.

⟨uŋ⟩ is used in

Lakhota

for the nasal vowel /ũ/.

⟨uo⟩ is used in

Yi

, where ⟨o⟩ stands for /ɔ/.

⟨uq⟩ is used in Taa, for the pharyngealized vowel /uˤ/.

⟨ur⟩ is used in

Yi.^{[citation needed}

]

⟨uu⟩ is used in many languages with phonemic long vowels, for /uː/. In Dutch, it is used for /y/.

⟨uw⟩ is used in Dutch for /yu̯/, e.g. uw "yours", duwen "to push". In Cornish it is used for /iʊ/^[1][2][3][4] or /yʊ/.^[4]

⟨uy⟩ is used in Afrikaans for /œy/.

⟨ux⟩ is

unofficially used in Esperanto, instead of ⟨ŭ

⟩, for /u̯/.

⟨u_e⟩ (a

split digraph

) is used in English for /juː/ or /uː/.

V

⟨vb⟩ is used in the

labiodental flap

/ⱱ/.

⟨vg⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of

voiceless palatal click

/ǂ/.

⟨vh⟩ represents /v̤/ in Shona. It was also used in the Tindall orthography of Khoekhoe for the aspirated palatal click /ǂʰ/.

⟨vk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of

voiceless palatal click

/ǂ/ (equivalent to ⟨vg⟩).

⟨vn⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of

palatal nasal click

/ᵑǂ/.

⟨vv⟩ is used in

Central Alaskan Yup'ik

for /f/.

⟨vr⟩ is used in Quechua.

W

⟨wh⟩ is used in

voiceless w sound, [ʍ], is retained in some areas: Scotland, central and southern Ireland, southeastern United States, and (mostly among older speakers) in New Zealand. In a few words (who, whose, etc.) the pronunciation used among almost all speakers regardless of geography is /h/. For details, see Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩

.
In

Taranaki region, for some speakers, this represents a glottalized /wʼ/. In Xhosa, it represents /w̤/, a murmured variant of /w/ found in loan words. In Cornish, it represents /ʍ/.^[1][2][4]

⟨wr⟩ is used in English for words which formerly began /wr/, now reduced to /r/ in virtually all dialects.

⟨wu⟩ is used in Mandarin

hanwu. In Cantonese Romanisation

, it is used to represent /wuː/ in an initial position or /uː/ in a non-initial position.

⟨ww⟩ is used in Haida (Bringhurst orthography) for glottalized /ˀw/.

⟨wx⟩ is used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀw/.

X

⟨xf⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the labialized fricative /xʷ/.

⟨xg⟩ is used to write the click /ǁχ/ in

voiceless lateral click

/ǁ/.

⟨xh⟩ is used in

alveolar lateral click /kǁʰ/, e.g. Xhosa /ˈkǁʰoːsa/. In Walloon it represents a consonant that is variously /h/, /ʃ/, /ç ~ x/, depending on the dialect. In Canadian Tlingit

it represents /χ/, which is represented by ⟨x̱⟩ in Alaska.

⟨xi⟩ is used in English for /kʃ/ in words such as flexion. (It is equivalent to ⟨c⟩ plus the digraph ⟨ti⟩, as in action.)

⟨xk⟩ was used in the Tindall orthography of

voiceless lateral click

/ǁ/ (equivalent to ⟨xg⟩).

⟨xö⟩ is used as a letter of the Seri alphabet, where it represents a labialized uvular fricative, /χʷ/. It is placed between ⟨x⟩ and ⟨y⟩ in alphabetical order.

⟨xs⟩ is used in Portuguese in the word exsudar /ˌe.su.ˈda(ʁ)/ in Brazilian Portuguese. In European Portuguese this digraph changed to /ʃs/ in the early 20th century and the word came to be pronounced as /ɐjʃ.su.ˈðaɾ/

⟨xu⟩ was used in the Ossete Latin alphabet for /χʷ/.

⟨xw⟩ is used in the Kurdish and the Tlingit language for /xʷ/.

⟨x̱w⟩ is used in Alaskan

xhw

⟩.

⟨xx⟩ is used in Hadza for the glottalized click /ᵑǁˀ/, and in Cypriot Arabic for /χː/.

⟨xy⟩ is used in the Hmong Romanized Popular Alphabet to write /ç/.

Y

⟨ye⟩ used in various languages. In English it represents /aɪ/ word finally, e.g. bye or dye.

⟨yh⟩ was used in the

pre-1985 orthography of Guinea, for the "ejective y" or palatalized glottal stop (/ʔʲ/) in Pular (a Fula language) and in Hausa to represent a creaky voiced palatal approximant [j̰]. In the current orthography it is now written ⟨ƴ⟩. In Xhosa it represents /j̤/. In a handful of Australian languages, it represents a "dental semivowel".^{[clarification needed}

]

⟨yi⟩ is used in Mandarin pinyin to write /i/ when it forms an entire syllable.

⟨yk⟩ is used in Yanyuwa for a pre-velar stop, /ɡ̟ ~ k̟/.

⟨ym⟩ is used in French to write /ɛ̃/ (/im/ before another vowel), as in thym /tɛ̃/ "thyme".

⟨yn⟩ is used in French to write /ɛ̃/ in some words of Greek origin, such as syncope /sɛ̃kɔp/ "syncope".

⟨yr⟩ is used in

Yi

.

⟨yu⟩ is used in romanized Chinese to write the vowel /y/. In Mandarin pinyin it is used for /y/ in initial position, whereas in Cantonese Jyutping it is used for /yː/ in non-initial position. In the Yale romanization of Cantonese and Cantonese Romanisation, it represents /jyː/ in an initial position and /yː/ in a non-initial position.

⟨yw⟩ is used for /jʷ/ in

Yélî Dnye. It is used in Cornish for the diphthongs /iʊ/,^[1][2][3] /ɪʊ/, or /ɛʊ/.^[4]

⟨yx⟩ in used in Nambikwara for a glottalized /ˀj/.

⟨yy⟩ is used in some languages such as Finnish to write the long vowel /yː/. In Haida (Bringhurst orthography) it is represents glottalized /ˀj/. Used in some Asturian dialects to represent /ɟ͡ʝ/.

⟨y_e⟩ (a

split digraph) indicates an English 'long y'

(equivalent to ⟨i...e⟩).

Z

⟨zh⟩ represents the

ழ

⟨ḻ⟩ [ɻ]).

⟨zi⟩ in Polish represents /ʑ/ whenever it precedes a vowel, and /ʑi/ whenever it precedes a consonant (or in the end of the word), and is considered a graphic variant of ⟨ź⟩ appearing in other situations.

⟨zl⟩ is used in the

voiced lateral fricative

/ɮ/

⟨zr⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ʐ/.

⟨zs⟩ is the last (forty-fourth) letter of the Hungarian alphabet. Its name is zsé and represents /ʒ/, a voiced postalveolar fricative, similar to ⟨j⟩ in Jacques and beside ⟨s⟩ in vision. A few examples are rózsa "rose" and zsír "fat".

⟨zv⟩ is used in

ɀ

⟩ from 1931 to 1955.

⟨zz⟩ is used in

Yi. It is also used with that value in romanized Kabyle. In medieval Czech, it stood for /s/. In Hadza

it is ejective /tsʼ/.

Other

⟨ɛn⟩, capital ⟨Ɛn⟩, is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel /ɛ̃/. ⟨ɛ⟩ is an "open e".

⟨ɔn⟩, capital ⟨Ɔn⟩, is used in many West African languages for the nasal vowel /ɔ̃/. ⟨ɔ⟩ is an "

open o

".

⟨œu⟩, capital ⟨Œu⟩, is used in French for the vowels /œ/ and /ø/. The first element of the digraph, ⟨œ⟩, is itself is a ligature of ⟨o⟩ and ⟨e⟩, and ⟨œu⟩ may also be written as the trigraph ⟨oeu⟩.

⟨ŋg⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ᵑɡ/.

⟨ŋk⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for /ᵑk/.

⟨ŋm⟩ is used in the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages for the

labial-velar nasal

/ŋ͡m/.

⟨ŋv⟩, capital ⟨Ŋv⟩, was used for /ŋʷ/ in the old orthography of Zhuang and Bouyei; this is now spelled with the trigraph ⟨ngv⟩.

⟨ŋʼ⟩ is used in

Adzera

for the prenasalized glottal stop /ⁿʔ/.

⟨ſh⟩, capital ⟨SH⟩ or sometimes ⟨ŞH⟩, was a digraph used in the Slovene Bohorič alphabet for /ʃ/. The first element, ⟨ſ⟩, the long s, is an archaic non-final form of the letter ⟨s⟩.

⟨ǃʼ⟩ ⟨ǀʼ⟩ ⟨ǁʼ⟩ ⟨ǂʼ⟩ are used in

glottalized nasal clicks

, /ᵑǃˀ, ᵑǀˀ, ᵑǁˀ, ᵑǂˀ/.

⟨ǃg⟩ ⟨ǀg⟩ ⟨ǁg⟩ ⟨ǂg⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four tenuis clicks, /ǃ, ǀ, ǁ, ǂ/.

⟨ǃh⟩ ⟨ǀh⟩ ⟨ǁh⟩ ⟨ǂh⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four aspirated nasal clicks, /ᵑ̊ǃʰ, ᵑ̊ǀʰ, ᵑ̊ǁʰ, ᵑ̊ǂʰ/, and in Juǀʼhoan for its plain aspirated clicks, /ǃʰ, ǀʰ, ǁʰ, ǂʰ/.

⟨ǃk⟩ ⟨ǀk⟩ ⟨ǁk⟩ ⟨ǂk⟩ are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate ejective-contour clicks, /ǃ͡χʼ, ǀ͡χʼ, ǁ͡χʼ, ǂ͡χʼ/.

⟨ǃn⟩ ⟨ǀn⟩ ⟨ǁn⟩ ⟨ǂn⟩ are used in Khoekhoe for its four plain

nasal clicks

, /ᵑǃ, ᵑǀ, ᵑǁ, ᵑǂ/.

⟨ǃx⟩ ⟨ǀx⟩ ⟨ǁx⟩ ⟨ǂx⟩ are used in Juǀʼhoan for its four affricate pulmonic-contour clicks, /ǃ͡χ, ǀ͡χ, ǁ͡χ, ǂ͡χ/.

⟨ьj⟩ was used in Yañalif and some Turkic languages for the diphthong /ɤj/.

See also

• Trigraph
  • List of Latin-script trigraphs
• Tetragraph
  • List of Latin-script tetragraphs
• Pentagraph
  • List of Latin-script pentagraphs
• Hexagraph
• Heptagraph
• List of Latin letters
• List of Cyrillic digraphs

References

1. ^
   ISBN 978-1-904808-93-0
   .
2. ^
   ISBN 978-1-901409-12-3
   .
3. ^
   ISBN 978-1-901409-13-0
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4. ^
   ISBN 978-1-903798-56-0. Archived from the original
   on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
5. ISBN 0-415-10887-X
   .
6. ISBN 978-3-11-085708-5
   .
7. S2CID 241836755
   .
8. S2CID 187473360
9. ISBN 978-3-11-011128-6
10. ISBN 9781136755101
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11. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199281251.013.0021
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12. ISBN 978-90-272-5581-5
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13. ^ First Lt. William E. W. MacKinlay, 1905, A Handbook and Grammar of the Tagalog Language. Washington: Government Printin Office.
14. ^ Edward von Preissig, 1918, Dictionary and Grammar of the Chamorro Language of the Island of Guam. Washington: Government Printing Office.
15. ^ "L'orthographe des langues de la République démocratique du Congo: entre usages et norme" (PDF). Les cahiers du Rifal. 23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-04.
16. ISBN 978-1-902917-84-9
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17. ^ IPA: Vowels Archived 2009-03-13 at the Wayback Machine
18. Tainan City
    , Jul 2006.
19. ISBN 978-1-901409-09-3
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20. ^ "R. M. de Azkue: "Euskara-Gaztelania-Frantsesa Hiztegia" / "Diccionario Vasco-Español-Francés" online -Tutorial de uso" (PDF) (in Spanish). Aurten Bai Fundazioa. p. 6. Retrieved 12 February 2024. El autor usaba fuentes propias para representar fenómenos propios de algunos de los dialectos del euskera. Estos son los caracteres especiales utilizados en el diccionario: ã d̃ ẽ ĩ l̃ ñ õ s̃ t̃ ũ x̃.