Aerobatics

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JeffCo Airport
in Denver, Colorado, June 2008

Aerobatics is the practice of

aerobatic manoeuvres.[3] An example of a fully aerobatic helicopter, capable of performing loops and rolls, is the Westland Lynx
.

Most aerobatic manoeuvres involve rotation of the aircraft about its longitudinal (roll) axis or lateral (pitch) axis. Other maneuvers, such as a

spin, displace the aircraft about its vertical (yaw) axis.[4] Manoeuvres are often combined to form a complete aerobatic sequence for entertainment or competition. Aerobatic flying requires a broader set of piloting skills and exposes the aircraft to greater structural stress than for normal flight.[5] In some countries, the pilot must wear a parachute when performing aerobatics.[6]

Aerobatic training enhances a pilot's ability to recover from unusual flight conditions, and thus is an element of many flight safety training programs for pilots. While many pilots fly aerobatics for recreation, some choose to fly in aerobatic competitions, a judged sport.[7]

Overview

The "Frecce Tricolori", the aerobatic demonstration team of the Italian Air Force

In the early days of flying, some pilots used their aircraft as part of a flying circus to entertain. Maneuvers were flown for artistic reasons or to draw gasps from onlookers. In due course some of these maneuvers were found to allow aircraft to gain tactical advantage during aerial combat or dogfights between fighter aircraft.

Aerobatic aircraft fall into two categories—specialist aerobatic, and aerobatic capable. Specialist designs such as the

300, and the Sukhoi Su-26M and Sukhoi Su-29 aim for ultimate aerobatic performance. This comes at the expense of general purpose use such as touring, or ease of non aerobatic handling such as landing. At a more basic level, aerobatic capable aircraft, such as the Cessna 152 Aerobat or the R2160 Acrobin
, can be dual purpose—equipped to carrying passengers and luggage, as well as being capable of basic aerobatic figures.

armed forces while others are commercially sponsored. Coloured smoke
trails may be emitted to emphasise the patterns flown and/or the colours of a national flag.

Aerobatic maneuvers flown in a jet-powered aircraft are limited in scope as they cannot take advantage of the gyroscopic forces that a propeller driven aircraft can exploit. Jet-powered aircraft also tend to fly much faster, which increases the size of the figures and the length of time the pilot has to withstand increased g-forces. Jet aerobatic teams often fly in formations, which further restricts the maneuvers that can be safely flown.

A "Lazy eight" aerobatic maneuver from the perspective of the wingtip

Aerobatics done at low levels and for an audience is called "stunt flying". To enhance the show effect of aerobatic manoeuvres, smoke is sometimes generated; the smoke allows viewers to see the path travelled by the aircraft. Due to safety concerns, the smoke is not a result of combustion but is produced by the

The Black Cats" at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1957.[11]

Training

A Spanish Air Force Colibri demonstrates its agility with a barrel roll

Aerobatics are taught to military fighter pilots as a means of developing flying skills and for tactical use in combat. Many aerobatic manoeuvres were indeed developed in military conflicts, e.g. the Immelmann turn or Split S.

Aerobatics and formation flying is not limited solely to fixed-wing aircraft; the

Spanish Air Force and the Indian Air Force
, among others, have helicopter display teams.

All aerobatic manoeuvres demand training and practice to avoid

airshows or air racing
. Low-level aerobatics are extremely demanding and airshow pilots must demonstrate their ability before being allowed to gradually reduce the height at which they may fly their show.

In the EU, flying aerobatics requires special training and a rating. In Canada, no licence is required to perform aerobatics, but to carry passengers during aerobatics a pilot must have at least 10 hours dual flight instruction of aerobatic manoeuvres, or 20 hours of total aerobatic experience.[12]

Competition

Main article: Competition aerobatics

Aerobatic flying competitions are a worldwide phenomenon, rather like the Olympic games, and are governed by the FAI Aerobatics Commission (CIVA)

Competitions start at Primary, or Graduate level (in UK "Beginners") and proceed in complexity through Sportsman (in UK "Standard"), Intermediate and Advanced, with Unlimited being the top competition level. Experienced aerobatic pilots have been measured to pull ±5 g for short periods while unlimited pilots can perform more extreme maneuvers and experience higher g levels -possibly up to +8/−6 g.[13] The limits for positive g are higher than for negative g and this is due to the ability to limit blood pooling for positive g maneuvers, but it is generally accepted that +9 g for more than a few seconds will lead to loss of consciousness (also known as GLOC).[13][14]

Performance

Boeing Stearmans

Aerobatics are most likely to be seen at public

airshows
in the form of stunt flying. Aerobatic competitions usually do not attract large crowds of spectators since the manoeuvers are flown at safe altitudes to avoid accidents.

In popular culture

Film

Video games

  • Ace Combat – Flight action video game series
  • AeroWings – 1999 video game
  • Flight Unlimited – 1995 aerobatic flight simulator video game
  • Flight Simulator X
     – Flight simulation computer game
  • X-Plane (simulator) – Flight simulator produced by Laminar Research
  • VRChat Flight Communities

See also

References

  1. ^ "Civil Aviation Rules Part 1" (PDF). Government publication. New Zealand Civil Aviation Authority. 23 October 2008. p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
  2. ^ "FAR 91.303". USA Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2009.
  3. ^ "Red Bull Bo-105 CBS Helicopter". Web page. Red Bull. Archived from the original on 1 May 2009. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
  4. ISBN 0-9504543-0-3
    .
  5. ISBN 0-07-036240-8
    .
  6. ^ "FAR 91.307(c)". USA Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2009.
  7. ^ Howard, Brian, ed. (2009). Official Contest Rules. Oshkosh, Wisconsin, US: International Aerobatic Club. pp. 1–7.
  8. ^ The record is a 22-aircraft formation in 1958.
  9. ^ "northwestaerobatics.com". www.northwestaerobatics.com. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011.
  10. ^ "Patentscope: 1. (WO2006096918) Smoke Generator". World Intellectual Property Association. 21 September 2006.
  11. ^ ""In June 1957 738 squadron was chosen to take part in a combined Naval display at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1957, despite having a full operational programme. It was decided to have a team of five Hawker Seahawks. They were the first aerobatic team to produce smoke at will, by modifying the fuel injection system."". Archived from the original on 1 August 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2009.
  12. ^ Canadian Aviation Regulations. Transport Canada. p. 602.28.
  13. ^ a b "Effects of G forces on aerobatic pilots". historic.aerobatics.org.uk. Archived from the original on 24 December 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
  14. ^ FAA Advisory Circular 91-61 2/28/84

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aerobatics.
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