African-American culture
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages)
|
This article is part of a series on the |
Culture of the United States |
---|
Society |
Arts and literature |
Other |
Symbols |
United States portal |
Part of a series on |
African Americans |
---|
African-American culture,[1][2] also known as Black American culture or Black culture in American English,[3][4][5][6][7] refers to the cultural expressions of African Americans, either as part of or distinct from mainstream American culture. African-American culture has been influential on American and global worldwide culture as a whole.[8][9][10] Black culture has historically labeled its arts, institutions, social and political groups, businesses and more with the Black American cultural meaning of the word Black, not a racial meaning as many people globally are racially black but have a different culture. One example of this would be the Black Panther Party, founded in the United States.
African-Americans have faced systemic and violent racism through periods of
African-American cultural history
From the earliest days of
African cultures, slavery, slave rebellions, and the civil rights movement have all shaped African-American religious, familial, political, and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in a myriad of ways: in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion, cuisine, and worldview.[15] Throughout all of this, African Americans have created their own culture and unique history in the United States.[16]
In turn, African-American culture has had a pervasive and transformative impact on many elements of mainstream American culture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization.[17] Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well.[18]
Oral tradition
The Slaveholders limited or prohibited the education of enslaved Africans because they feared that it might empower their chattel and inspire or enable emancipatory ambitions. In the United States, the legislation that banned slaves from getting a formal education likely contributed to their maintenance of a strong oral tradition, a common feature of indigenous or native African culture.[20] African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, mores, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many native African culture and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African-Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another.[20]
Examples of African-American folktales include
The legacy of the African-American oral tradition manifests in diverse forms. African-American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speaker's tone, volume, and cadence, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. The meaning of this manner of preaching is not easily understood by European Americans or others of non-African origin. Often song, dance, verse, and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Call and response is another element of the African-American oral tradition. It manifests in worship in what is commonly referred to as the "amen corner". In direct contrast to the tradition present in American and European cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker.[25] This pattern of interaction is also in evidence in music, particularly in blues and jazz forms. Hyperbolic and provocative, even incendiary, rhetoric is another aspect of African-American oral tradition often evident in the pulpit in a tradition sometimes referred to as "prophetic speech".[26]
Modernity and migration of African-American communities to the North has had a history of placing strain on the retention of African American cultural practices and traditions. The urban and radically different spaces in which black culture was being produced raised fears in anthropologists and sociologists that the southern African-American folk aspect of black popular culture were at risk of being lost within history. The study over the fear of losing black popular cultural roots from the South have a topic of interest to many anthropologists, who among them include Zora Neale Hurston. Through her extensive studies of Southern folklore and cultural practices, Hurston has claimed that the popular Southern folklore traditions and practices are not dying off. Instead they are evolving, developing, and re-creating themselves in different regions.[27]
Other aspects of African-American oral tradition include
Harlem Renaissance
The first major public recognition of African-American culture occurred during the
The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African-American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the
African-American cultural movement
The
The works of
During the African American cultural Movement, Melvin Charles and Gleason T Jackson created the Black American Heritage Flag (also known as the African American Heritage Flag) in 1967 for Black Americans. It is used today as an Ethnic Flag that represents the African American people.
Another major aspect of the African-American Arts Movement was the infusion of the
Music
African-American music is rooted in the typically
As far back as the 1700s, after drums were outlawed after the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina, African Americans created hamboning, patting their bodies in order to make their music.[37]
Many African Americans sing "
In the 19th century, as the result of the
Contemporary
This section needs to be updated.(July 2022) |
Hip hop and contemporary R&B would become a multicultural movement, however, it still remained important to many African Americans. The African-American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of
Famous contemporary African-American musicians include 50 Cent, Jay-Z, Alicia Keys, Usher, Mary J. Blige, Ne-Yo, Snoop Dogg and Kanye West.
The arts
Dance
African-American dance, like other aspects of African-American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up the enslaved African population in the Americas as well as in traditional folk dances from Europe. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both everyday life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, Akan Line Dancing and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance.[42]
In the 19th century, African-American dance began to appear in
During the
Contemporary African-American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African-American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African-American dance most notably in the hip-hop genre.[45]
One of the uniquely African-American forms of dancing, turfing, emerged from social and political movements in the East Bay in the San Francisco Bay Area.[46] Turfing is a hood dance and a response to the loss of African-American lives, police brutality, and race relations in Oakland, California.[47] The dance is an expression of Blackness, and one that integrates concepts of solidarity, social support, peace, and the discourse of the state of black people in our current social structures.[48][49][50]
Art
From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the 20th century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States.[52] During the period between the 17th century and the early 19th century, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures, and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African-American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion.[53]
During the 19th century,
After the
During the 1920s, artists such as
In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African-American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African-American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name "The Highwaymen". Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history.[60][61] Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales.[62]
The
Ceramics
In
Symbolisms from
Literature
African-American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and
During the early 20th century
Cinema
African-American films typically feature an African-American cast and are targeted at an African-American audience. More recently, Black films feature multicultural casts, and are aimed at multicultural audiences, even if American Blackness is essential to the storyline.[69][70][71]
Games
Card games are traditionally enjoyed by African Americans at familial gatherings.[72] Originating Black card games include: Bid whist, Spades, Tonk, Pitty-Pat, and Rummy. "Talkin' the board" is not allowed in any game.
Hand games that trickled from Africa
Double dutch and hopscotch are other staple games which are similar to footwork games played amongst children in Africa.
Museums
The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African-American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history.[74] Museums devoted to African-American history are found in many African-American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland, The African American Museum in Cleveland and the Natchez Museum of African American History and Culture[75] were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades, was primarily preserved through oral traditions.[76]
Other prominent African-American museums include Chicago's
Language
Generations of hardships created by the compounded institutions of slavery imposed upon the African-American community prevented the majority of them from learning to read or write English, despite this, enslaved Africans continued to carry their language systems and culture, creating distinct language patterns. Filtering the English they heard through their language systems and culture.[citation needed]
While traditionally understood to be generally factual that European owners of enslaved Africans often intentionally mixed Africans who spoke different languages to discourage communication in any language other than English, the truth is that Africans were strategically placed in certain types of settings. West Africans were primarily (not exclusively) placed in non-field work in the upper southern colonies and West Central/Central Africans were primarily (not exclusively) placed in field based work in the lower southern colonies.[citation needed]
Africans in primarily non-field work typically had extensive interaction with Europeans in the early period, with cultural influence being bi-directional. Colonies typically preferred certain African ethnic groups, some very selective (South Carolina for example), others a bit more loose but still maintained a level of preference (Virginia for example). West Central and Central Africans brought with them a homogenous culture that superseded West African culture early on in establishing African-American culture, at a later point in history, West African influence displays itself in African-American culture.[citation needed]
Interaction between West Africans and West Central/Central Africans did occur, creating a lingua franca, however the culture of African Americans was heavily affected by the homogeneity and relatively isolated Bantu imported population. Later influence from West Africa presents itself in African-American culture. African-American speech however is heavily based (but not exclusively, includes West Africa to some extent) in Bantu culture, as such, it is responsible for African Americans' language patterns, combining an African substrate with the topical usage of primarily non-African words. [77]
African-American Vernacular English (AAVE) is touted to be a variety (dialect, ethnolect, and sociolect) of the American English language, [78] however, mainstream non-AAL/V linguists have traditionally and intentionally ignored or dismissed African language systems and culture, missing key associations and connections. Linguists and speakers of AAL (African American Language) have shown not only the grammatical structure of AAL being Niger-Congo, but the cultural/relational patterns within the language that are of African origin that characterize or color it.[77]
There exists convergence and commonality with many languages; these elements don't automatically indicate derivation. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both whites and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English, none of which is true; they are differences in languages. Many African Americans who were born outside the American South still speak with hints of AAVE or southern dialect. Inner-city African-American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE sometimes have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work.[79][80] It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting.[81]
Fashion and aesthetics
Attire
The
Another common aspect of fashion in African-American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the
Hip hop fashion is popular with African Americans. Grillz were made popular by African-American rapper Nelly.[87] Sagging pants was a part of African-American culture.[88] Air Jordan, a shoe brand named after former African-American basketball player Michael Jordan, is very popular among the African-American community.[89]
African-American fashion designers include Sean Combs, Kimora Lee Simmons, Virgil Abloh and Kanye West.[90]
Hair
Hair styling in African-American culture is greatly varied. African-American hair is typically composed of coiled curls, which range from tight to wavy. Many women choose to wear their hair in its natural state. Natural hair can be styled in a variety of ways, including the afro, twist outs, braid outs, and wash and go styles. It is a myth that natural hair presents styling problems or is hard to manage; this myth seems prevalent because mainstream culture has, for decades, attempted to get African-American women to conform to its standard of beauty (i.e., straight hair).
Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s,
Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African-American men than in other male populations in the US.[96] In fact, the soul patch is so named because African-American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style.[97] The preference for facial hair among African-American men is due partly to personal taste, but also because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave.[96]
Body image
Eurocentric beauty standards have widely shaped image. In an effort to unlearn these sentiments rooted in colonialism and white supremacy, a movement has ensued that promotes natural Black beauty. There are also individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting models with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types.[95][98] Non-Black Americans have sometimes appropriated different hair braiding techniques and other forms of African-American hair. Afro features are too often ridiculed to be subject to glamorization by the non-Afro people who appropriate them.
Religion
While African Americans practice a number of religions, Black Protestant is by far the most prevalent (59%), followed by Evangelical Protestant (15%).[99]
Christianity
The religious institutions of African-American Christians are commonly and collectively referred to as the black church. During the era of slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice, some forced to become Christians while others brought Christianity from Africa.[100] However, slaves managed to hang on to some of their traditional African religious practices by integrating them into Christian worship during secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African-American church.[101]
African-American churches taught the belief that all people were equal in
After the
Like many Christians, African-American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a
Islam
Generations before the advent of the
In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial movements in the African-American community. The first of these of note was the
Many former members of the Nation of Islam converted to Sunni Islam when
Judaism
There are 150,000 African Americans in the United States who practice Judaism.[112] Some of these are members of mainstream Jewish groups like the Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox branches of Judaism; others belong to non-mainstream Jewish groups like the Black Hebrew Israelites. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African-American religious organizations whose practices and beliefs are partially derived from Judaism. Their varied teachings often include the belief that African Americans are descended from the biblical Israelites.[113]
In the last 10 to 15 years, studies have shown that there has been a major increase in the number of African-Americans who identify themselves as being Jewish.[112] Rabbi Capers Funnye, the first cousin of Michelle Obama, says in response to skepticism by some on people being African-American and Jewish at the same time, "I am a Jew, and that breaks through all color and ethnic barriers."[114]
Other religions
Aside from Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, there are also African Americans who practice
Irreligious beliefs
In a 2008 Pew Forum survey, 12% of African Americans described themselves as being
Life events
For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. While African Americans and whites often lived to themselves for much of American history, both groups generally had the same perspective on American culture. There are some traditions that are unique to African Americans.[117]
Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Some pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. These classes tend to focus on spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Many of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African cultures.[118]
To this day, some African-American couples choose to "jump the broom" as a part of their wedding ceremony. Some sources claim that this practice can be traced back to Ghana. However, other sources argue that the African-American tradition of "jumping the broom" is far more similar to the tradition in England.[119][120] Although, this tradition largely fell out of favor in the African-American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage.[121]
Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African-American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks.[122]
The spirituality of death is very important in African-American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings or homecomings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife; "Returning to God" or the earth.[123] The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of the person's life, deeds and accomplishments – the "good things" rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans jazz funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend.[124]
Cuisine
In studying of the African-American culture, food cannot be left out as one of the media to understand their traditions, religion, interaction, and social and cultural structures of their community. Observing the ways they prepare their food and eat their food ever since the enslaved era reveals about the nature and identity of African-American culture in the United States.[125] Derek Hicks examines the origins of "gumbo", which is considered a soul food to many African Americans, in his reference to the intertwinement of food and culture in African-American community. No written evidence is found historically about the gumbo or its recipes, so through the African American's nature of orally passing their stories and recipes down, gumbo came to represent their truly communal dish. Gumbo is said to be "an invention of enslaved Africans and African Americans" in Louisiana.[126]
The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as
Other common foods, such as
Traditionally prepared soul food is often high in fat, sodium, and starch. Highly suited to the physically demanding lives of laborers, farmhands and rural lifestyles generally, it is now a contributing factor to
Other soul foods African Americans cook are
Okra came from Ethiopia and Eritrea. Rice, common to Lowcountry region of South Carolina and Georgia, was imported from the island of Madagascar.[133][134] Soul food is similar to gypsy cooking in Europe.[135] The roots of soul food are spread up and down the West Coast of Africa, including countries like Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo, Cameroon, Gabon, Nigeria and Angola, as well as in Western European countries such as Scotland, but the fruits can be found across America.[136][137]
Holidays and observances
As with other American racial and ethnic groups, African Americans observe ethnic holidays alongside traditional American holidays. Holidays observed in African-American culture are not only observed by African Americans but are widely considered American holidays. The birthday of noted American
On June 7, 1979, President
Less-widely observed outside of the African-American community is Emancipation Day popularly known as Juneteenth or Freedom Day, in recognition of the official reading of the Emancipation Proclamation on June 19, 1865, in Texas.[141] Juneteenth is a day when African Americans reflect on their unique history and heritage. It is one of the fastest growing African-American holidays with observances in the United States. Juneteenth was recognized as federal holiday in 2021, and was first observed as such on June 19, 2021.[citation needed]
In addition, other holidays celebrated were African American Day[142]in Louisiana along with African American Emancipation Day[143] across the United States in the 19th century after the abolition of slavery.
Another holiday not widely observed outside of the African-American community is the birthday of Malcolm X. The day is observed on May 19 in American cities with a significant African-American population, including Washington, D.C.[144]
Another noted African-American holiday is
Names
Although many African-American names are common among the larger population of the United States, distinct naming trends have emerged within African-American culture. Prior to the 1950s and 1960s, most African-American names closely resembled those used within European American culture.
African-American names have origins in many languages including
By the 1970s and 1980s, it had become common within the culture to invent new names, although many of the invented names took elements from popular existing names. Prefixes such as La/Le-, Da/De-, Ra/Re-, or Ja/Je- and suffixes such as -ique/iqua, -isha, and -aun/-awn are common, as well as inventive spellings for common names.[150]
Even with the rise of creative names, it is also still common for African Americans to use biblical, historic, or European names.[146][151][152]
Family
When slavery was practiced in the United States, it was common for families to be separated through sale. Even during slavery, however, many African-American families managed to maintain strong familial bonds. Free African men and women, who managed to buy their own freedom by being hired out, who were emancipated, or who had escaped their masters, often worked long and hard to buy the members of their families who remained in bondage and send for them.[citation needed]
Others, separated from blood kin, formed close bonds based on fictive kin; play relations, play aunts, cousins, and the like. This practice, a holdover from African oral traditions such as
76% of African Americans have said they have spoken with their relatives to learn about their family history.[153]
African-American family structure
Immediately after slavery, African-American families struggled to reunite and rebuild what had been taken. As late as 1960, when most African Americans lived under some form of segregation, 78 percent of African-American families were headed by married couples. This number steadily declined during the latter half of the 20th century.[154] For the first time since slavery, a majority of African-American children live in a household with only one parent, typically the mother.[155]
This apparent weakness is balanced by mutual-aid systems established by
African Americans are less likely to own a pet.[157]
Interracial marriages have increased for African Americans since Loving Vs. Virginia.[158]
Fifty six percent of African-American children are born to unmarried mothers. African-American parents are more likely to be strict and to hold demanding standards for behavior.[citation needed] In 1998, 1.4 million African-American children lived in a grandparent's home.[citation needed]
More than half (51.2%) of African-American children lived with a single parent in 2022, compared with about one in five (21.3%) of white American children.[159]
When African Americans were taken from their homes and forced into slavery, they were separated from mothers, fathers, sisters and brothers and were torn apart from extensive kinship networks.[160][161][162]
Politics and social issues
Since the passing of the
Social issues such as
in general are important to the African-American community.African-Americans may express political and social sentiments through
Prominent leaders in the Black church have demonstrated against gay-rights issues such as gay marriage. This stands in stark contrast to the down-low phenomenon of covert male–male sexual acts. Some within the African-American community take a different position, notably the late Coretta Scott King[177] and the Reverend Al Sharpton.[178] Sharpton, when asked in 2003 whether he supported gay marriage, replied that he might as well have been asked if he supported black marriage or white marriage.[179]
One of the most well known social and political organizations of Black Culture is the Black Panther Party. Black Culture also utilizes cultural slogans for social and political standing such as Say it Loud, I’m Black and I’m Proud, Black Card, and even “It’s a Black Thing, You Wouldn’t Understand”, a popular slogan that was born inside of Black American culture, referring to their culture, not race.
African-American LGBT culture
The Black LGBT community refers to the African-American (Black) population who are members of the LGBT community, as a community of marginalized individuals who are further marginalized within their own community. Surveys and research have shown that 80% of African Americans say gays and lesbians endure discrimination compared to the 61% of whites. Black members of the community are not only seen as "other" due to their race, but also due to their sexuality, so they had to combat both racism and homophobia.[180]
Black LGBT first started to be visible during the
African-American population centers
African-American neighborhoods are types of
Wealthy African-American communities
Many affluent African-American communities exist today, including the following:
Ghettos
Due to segregated conditions and widespread poverty, some African-American neighborhoods in the United States have been called "ghettos". The use of this term is controversial and, depending on the context, potentially offensive. Despite mainstream America's use of the term "ghetto" to signify a poor urban area populated by ethnic minorities, those living in the area often used it to signify something positive. The African-American ghettos did not always contain dilapidated houses and deteriorating projects, nor were all of its residents poverty-stricken. For many African Americans, the ghetto was "home", a place representing authentic "blackness" and a feeling, passion, or emotion derived from the rising above the struggle and suffering of being of African descent in America.[182]
Langston Hughes relays in the "Negro Ghetto" (1931) and "The Heart of Harlem" (1945): "The buildings in Harlem are brick and stone/And the streets are long and wide,/But Harlem's much more than these alone,/Harlem is what's inside." Playwright August Wilson used the term "ghetto" in Ma Rainey's Black Bottom (1984) and Fences (1987), both of which draw upon the author's experience growing up in the Hill District of Pittsburgh, an African-American ghetto.[183]
Although African-American neighborhoods may suffer from civic disinvestment,[184] with lower-quality schools,[185] less-effective policing[186] and fire protection,[187][188] there are institutions such as churches and museums and political organizations that help to improve the physical and social capital of African-American neighborhoods. In African-American neighborhoods the churches may be important sources of social cohesion.[189] For some African Americans, the kind spirituality learned through these churches works as a protective factor against the corrosive forces of racism.[190] Museums devoted to African-American history are also found in many African-American neighborhoods.
Many African-American neighborhoods are located in
Social networks
There are African-American social networking websites such as BlackPlanet.[192] Social media is an important political outlet for African Americans.[193] African-American teenagers are the biggest users of Instagram and Snapchat.[194]
Education
African Americans have valued education since slavery. African-American communities have worked together to firm and finance public schools. Even when they were barred from accessing education, Black Americans worked together with their supporters to build black colleges for black people.[195] Education for black slaves was heavily prohibited. Enslaved black children and black adults had to take extreme measures to gain literacy, including having to attend underground schools.[196] White Southern slaveholders generally opposed slave literacy in the Southern United States.[197]
Some of the most prominent institutions of Black Culture are the historically Black Colleges and Universities, known as HBCUs. Some of the most renowned of these institutions are Tuskegee University founded by the formerly enslaved Booker T. Washington and Bethune Cookman University founded by Mary McCleod Bethune. There are over 100 HBCUs in the United States of America.
See also
- African-American beauty
- African-American dance
- African-American folktales
- African-American history
- African-American newspapers
- African diaspora
- Africanisms
- American culture
- Appropriations of African-American Culture
- Archives of African American Music and Culture
- Black Southerners
- Cuisine of the United States
- Culture of North America
- Culture of the United States
- Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
- Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
- Civil rights movement
- Civil rights movement in popular culture
- Cool (aesthetic) § African Americans
- Culture of the Southern United States
- History of African-American education
- History of the Southern United States
- Historically black colleges and universities
- Imaging Blackness
- National Museum of African American History and Culture
- Racism against African Americans
- Racism in the United States
- Black Twitter
- Hood film
- Hip hop activism
- Hip hop fashion
- Black Catholicism
- Auburn Avenue Research Library on African American Culture and History
- African-American Flag
- Black sitcom
- Ghetto fabulous
- Christian hip hop
- Black Gospel music
- Black doll
- Black science fiction
- Culture of New Orleans
- Culture of Louisiana
- Culture of Georgia (U.S. state)
- Culture of Texas
- Culture of Arkansas
- Wigger
References
- ^ "Black is Beautiful: The Emergence of Black Culture and Identity in the 60s and 70s". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
- ^ "Black History and Culture". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved March 7, 2023.
- ^ "The Montgomery Advertiser 20 Feb 2020, page D6". Newspapers.com. Retrieved March 8, 2023.
- ^ Brown, Angela (October 2013). "Cultural Perspective on African American Culture" (PDF). The International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies. 1 (2) – via AIAC.
- ^ "The News and Observer 22 Jan 1997, page 12". Newspapers.com. Retrieved March 10, 2023.
- ^ "Journal and Courier 21 Sep 2008, page 13". Newspapers.com. Retrieved August 14, 2023.
- ^ "Black is Beautiful: The Emergence of Black Culture and Identity in the 60s and 70s". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved August 14, 2023.
- ^ Mcmanus, Melanie (May 27, 2021). "Dancing at the new National Museum of African American Music in Nashville". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved December 21, 2021.
- ^ White, Constance. "How African Americans Have Influenced Style and Culture". Time. Retrieved December 21, 2021.
- ISBN 9781683356622.
- ISBN 0-8078-6171-5.
- ^ "The Explosion of Culture and Arts During the Harlem Renaissance". TheCollector. October 7, 2022. Retrieved March 8, 2023.
- ^ Morris, Aldon (July 13, 2021). "From Civil Rights to Black Lives Matter". Scientific American. Retrieved March 8, 2023.
- ^ Price, Richard (1996). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Anchor Books. pp. 1–33.
- ^ "Digital History". www.digitalhistory.uh.edu.
- ^ "The Cincinnati Enquirer 01 Mar 2000, page Page 12". Newspapers.com. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
- ^ "African American Voices: Slave Culture". University of Houston. June 2, 2007. Archived from the original on May 7, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ Geneviève Fabre, Robert G. O'Meally (1994). History and Memory in African-American Culture. Oxford University Press. pp. 12–208.
- ^ Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura (January 13, 2023). "African and Invisible: The Other New York Migrant Crisis". The New York Times. Retrieved January 26, 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Papa, Maggie; Gerber, Amy; Mohamed, Abeer. "African American Culture through Oral Tradition". George Washington University. Archived from the original on May 27, 2008. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
- ^ "Editor's Analysis of "The Wonderful Tar Baby Story"". University of Virginia. Archived from the original on October 17, 2007. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
- ^ "John Henry: The Steel Driving Man". ibiblio. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
- ^ "Uncle Remus". UncleRemus.com. 2003. Retrieved October 10, 2007.
- ^ "EDITOR'S PREFACES". UncleRemus.com. 2003. Retrieved October 10, 2007.
- ISBN 0-8070-0933-4. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
- ^ Fabre and O'Meally, pp. 219–244.
- JSTOR j.ctt14bt4hc.6.
- ^ a b Michael L. Hecht, Ronald L. Jackson, Sidney A. Ribeau (2003). African American Communication: Exploring Identity and Culture? Routledge. pp. 3–245.
- ^ Miazga, Mark (December 15, 1998). "The Spoken Word Movement of 1990s". Michigan State University. Retrieved October 7, 2007.
- ^ Johnson, William H. "The Harlem Renaissance". fatherryan.org. Archived from the original on June 1, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ "Black Power". King Encyclopedia. Stanford University. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ "Black Power". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on February 27, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ "Nikki Giovanni". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on March 3, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ "Black Aesthetic". Black Arts Movement. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on January 27, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ISBN 0-02-860294-3.
- ^ "The History of African American Music | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com.
- ^ "Hambone | African/African-American Culture". PBS LearningMedia. Retrieved March 25, 2023.
- ISBN 0-679-46315-1. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ "Lift Every Voice and Sing". National Public Radio. February 4, 2002. Archived from the original on May 28, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ McIntyre, Dean B. (January 20, 2000). "Lift Every Voice -- 100 Years Old". General Board of Discipleship. Archived from the original on May 7, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ISBN 0-393-97141-4.
- PBS. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
- ^ "Cakewalk Dance". Streetswing Dance History Archive. Retrieved April 1, 2007.
- ^ a b Ballroom, Boogie, Shimmy Sham, Shake: A Social and Popular Dance Reader. Julie Malnig. Edition: illustrated. University of Illinois Press. 2009, pp. 19–23.
- ^ "African American Dance, a history!". The African American Registry. Archived from the original on May 5, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ Bragin, Naomi Elizabeth. "Black Street Movement: Turf Dance, YAK Films and Politics of Sitation[clarification needed] in Oakland, California". ["Collected Work: Dance and the social city. Birmingham, Ala: Society of Dance History Scholars, 2012, pp. 51–57.
- ^ "Shot and Captured". Tdr-The Drama Review-The Journal of Performance Studies, vol. 58, no. 2, n.d., pp. 99–114.
- ^ "From Streets To Stage, Two Dance Worlds See Harmonization And Chaos". Weekend Edition Saturday, January 23, 2016. Literature Resource Center.
- ^ Simms, Renee. "Immortal Dance in the Age of Michael Brown". Southwest Review, no. 1, 2017, p. 74.
- ^ "Conscious Quiet as a Mode of Black Visual Culture". Black Camera: The New Series, vol. 8, no. 1, Fall 2016, pp. 146–154.
- ^ "An Abridged History of Twerk Culture". playboy.com.
- ISBN 0-19-284213-7. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ISBN 0-465-00071-1. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ "Harriet Powers". Early Women Masters. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ "The Quilts of Gees Bend". Tinwood Ventures. 2004. Archived from the original on February 22, 2004. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ Southern, Eileen. Music of Negro Americans: A History. New York: Norton, 1997, pp. 404–409.
- ^ "Aaron Douglas (1898–1979)". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on July 13, 2006. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
- ^ "Augusta Fells Savage (1882–1962)". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on July 13, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
- biography.com. Archived from the originalon July 20, 2012. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
- ^ Hall, Ken (2004). "The Highwaymen". McElreath Printing & Publishing, Inc. Archived from the original on October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ "Updates & Snapshots 2006". James Gibson. 2000. Archived from the original on March 11, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ Painting by a Florida Highwayman Archived January 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Smith, Roberta (September 9, 2007). "Solo Museum Shows: Not the Usual Suspects". The New York Times. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
- ^ "African Americans in the Visual Arts". Long Island University. Archived from the original on May 9, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f Sattes, Corey A. H.; Platt, Sarah E. "Rouletted Colonoware African-Style Pottery In Charleston, South Carolina" (PDF). Society For American Archaeology. SAA Archaeological Record.
- ^ S2CID 228856494.
- ^ S2CID 160445944.
- ISBN 0-415-91695-X.
- ^ Grant, Jaime; Mottet, Lisa; Tanis, Justin; Harrison, Jack; Herman, Jody; Keisling, Mara (2011). "Injustice at Every Turn" (PDF). National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 6, 2015. Retrieved October 30, 2016.
- ^ Burton, Nsenga (February 3, 2010). "Celebrating 100 Years of Black Cinema". The Root. Retrieved March 6, 2021.
- ^ Abuku, NeNé (October 5, 2011). "What is Black Cinema? Have You Ever Wondered?". Grandmother Africa. Retrieved March 6, 2021.
- ^ Hickmon, Gabrielle. "How you play Spades is how you play life". The Pudding. Retrieved June 3, 2023.
- ^ Three African Clapping Games from Liberia – Africa Heartwood Project, retrieved June 3, 2023
- ^ "African American Museums Association: History". Archived from the original on October 16, 2007.
- ^ Natchez Museum Showcases African American Heritage Archived March 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Today in Mississippi. Retrieved March 2, 2016.
- ^ "African-American Museums, History, and the American Ideal" by John E. Fleming. Journal of American History, Vol. 81, No. 3, The Practice of American History: A Special Issue (December 1994), pp. 1020–1026.
- ^ a b Holloway, Joseph (1990). "Africanisms in American Culture". Indiana University Press. p. [1]. Retrieved February 6, 2023.
- ISBN 0-8122-1051-4. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ Oubré, Alondra (1997). "Black English Vernacular (Ebonics) and Educability A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Language, Cognition, and Schooling". African American Web Connection. Archived from the original on June 14, 2007. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- PBS. 2005. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
- ISBN 1-397-80521-8. Retrieved October 30, 2007.
- ISBN 1-880174-05-7.
- ^ "Wrapped in Pride: Ghanaian Kente and African American Identity". National Museum of African Art. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
- ^ 1 Corinthians 11:5–6
- ^ "Fashion". Dickinson College. Archived from the original on August 1, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- PBS. Archived from the originalon October 18, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ Schwartzberg, Lauren (December 15, 2014). "The Ancient History of Grills".
- ^ "What's behind the sagging pants trend?". The Grio. September 15, 2009.
- ^ Smith, Jay (December 28, 2011). "Air Jordans are more than a sneaker to some blacks". www.thegrio.com. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
- ^ "30 Black Designers Who Shaped Fashion History - Black History Month African-American Fashi".
- ^ Mérida, Mateo. "Black Hair and Coerced Conformity". Avery Research Center for African American History and Culture. College of Charleston. Retrieved June 1, 2022.
- ISBN 0-312-28322-9.
- ^ Washington, Darren Taylor (May 22, 2007). "Film Encourages Africans and African Americans to Cultivate Natural Hair". Voice of America. Archived from the original on July 12, 2007. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ McDonald, Ashley (April 7, 2008). "The Rise of Natural Hair". The Meter. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ a b "African American Hairstyles". Dickinson College. Archived from the original on July 31, 2008. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ a b Lacy, D. Aaron. "The Most Endangered Title VII Plaintiff?: African-American Males and Intersectional Claims". Nebraska Law Review, Vol. 86, No. 3, 2008, pp. 14–15. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
- ^ Green, Penelope. "Ranting; Stubble trouble". The New York Times Magazine, November 8, 2007. Retrieved November 8, 2007.
- ^ Jones, LaMont (April 23, 2007). "Black and beautiful: African-American women haven't had an easy time in the fashion world". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ a b "A Religious Portrait of African-Americans". pewforum.org. January 30, 2009. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
- ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
- ^ a b c Maffly-Kipp, Laurie. "African American Religion, Pt. I: To the Civil War". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on June 27, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.
- ^ Martin, Michel (December 9, 2018). "Slave Bible From The 1800s Omitted Key Passages That Could Incite Rebellion". NPR. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
- ^ "What Is the Slave Bible? Who Made it and Why?". www.christianity.com. Retrieved October 17, 2023.
- ^ Maffly-Kipp, Laurie F. (May 2001). "The Church in the Southern Black Community". University of North Carolina. Retrieved May 21, 2007.
- ^ "Amazing grace: 50 years of the Black church". Ebony. April 1995. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ Alkalimat, Abdul. Religion and the Black Church. Introduction to Afro-American Studies (6th ed.). Chicago: Twenty-first Century Books and Publications. Archived from the original on April 8, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ "Intiman Theater: Black Nativity". Intiman Theater. Archived from the original on January 9, 2008. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
- ^ "Black Nativity". The National Center of African American Artists. 2004. Archived from the original on October 9, 2007. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
- ^ Cheikh Anta Diop, Precolonial Black Africa, p. 163.
- ^ Sylvaine Diouf, Servants of Allah
- ^ a b Wood, Daniel B. (February 14, 2002). "America's black Muslims close a rift". Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on April 26, 2006.
- ^ a b Rachel Pomerance, Judaism Drawing More Black Americans, The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, June 18, 2008.
- ISSN 1094-902X. Archived from the originalon April 7, 2008. Retrieved October 19, 2007.
- ^ Niko Koppel, "Black Rabbi Reaches Out to Mainstream of His Faith", The New York Times, March 16, 2008.
- ^ "Uncovering the Power of Hoodoo: An Ancestral Journey". Public Broadcasting Service. PBS. Retrieved May 25, 2023.
- ^ Dale, Maryclaire (August 9, 2003). "African Religions Attracting Americans". African Traditional Religion. afgen.com. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- S2CID 145158005.
- ISBN 0-520-23675-0. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ^ "'Jumping The Broom' a short history..." African American Registry. July 15, 2005. Archived from the original on October 27, 2006. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- S2CID 148110503– via www.academia.edu.
- ^ Anyiam, Thony. "Who should jump the broom?". Anyiams Creations International. Archived from the original on October 26, 2007. Retrieved October 14, 2007.
- ISSN 0090-4392.
- ^ "Death and Dying in the Black Experience: An Interview with Ronald K. Barrett, PhD". Education Development Center, Inc. September 25, 2001. Archived from the original on October 9, 2007. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
- PBS. January 30, 2004. Archived from the originalon March 10, 2013. Retrieved October 13, 2007.
- ^ Hicks, Derek S. "An Unusual Feast: Gumbo and the Complex Brew of Black Religion". In Religion, Food, and Eating in North America, edited by Benjamin E. Zeller, Marie W. Dallam, Reid L. Neilson, and Nora L. Rubel, 134-154. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
- ^ Hicks, Derek S. "An Unusual Feast: Gumbo and the Complex Brew of Black Religion". In Religion, Food, and Eating in North America, edited by Benjamin E. Zeller, Marie W. Dallam, Reid L. Neilson, and Nora L. Rubel, 136. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
- ISBN 0-253-34479-4.
- ^ a b "A History of Soul Food". 20th Century Fox. Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ Jonsson, Patrik (February 6, 2006). "Backstory: Southern discomfort food". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved June 2, 2007.
- ^ Dorsey, Amber (October 3, 2015). "19 Soul Food Recipes That Are Almost As Good As Your Mom's". BuzzFeed.
- ^ Godoy, Maria (February 15, 2013). "Fried Chicken And Waffles: The Dish The South Denied As Its Own?". NPR.
- ^ "Red (the flavor red) Kool-Aid named the official soul food drink". www.splendidtable.org.
- ISBN 978-0-9905011-0-7– via Google Books.
- ^ "AFRICAN CROPS AND SLAVE CUISINES - SlaveRebellion.org". slaverebellion.info.
- ^ "African Americans and the Gypsies: a cultural relationship formed through hardships". September 27, 2013.
- JSTOR 41279638.
- ISBN 978-1-4969-6118-1– via Google Books.
- ^ a b "Extra!: History of Black History Month". CNN. January 31, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ "5 USC 6103". Cornell Law School. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ "Black Music Month". www.classbrain.com. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 22, 2017.
- ^ "History of Juneteenth". juneteenth.com. 2005. Archived from the original on May 27, 2007. Retrieved March 15, 2007.
- ^ "The Times-Picayune 29 Nov 1885, page Page 3". Newspapers.com. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
- ^ "Historical Newspapers from 1700s-2000s". Newspapers.com. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
- ^ "Malcolm X's Birthday". University of Kansas Medical Center. 2003. Archived from the original on June 1, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.
- ^ "Fundamental Questions About Kwanzaa". OfficialKwanzaaWebsite.org. Archived from the original on June 11, 2007. Retrieved May 15, 2007.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-7704-3647-6.
- ^ Moskowitz, Clara (November 30, 2010). "Baby Names Reveal More About Parents Than Ever Before". Live Science.
- ^ "Finding Our History: African-American Names". Family Education. Retrieved June 5, 2007.
- ^ Zax, David (August 25, 2008). "What's up with black names, anyway?". Salon.com.
- ISBN 0-312-26757-6.
- ^ Lack, Evonne. "Popular African American Names". Retrieved February 12, 2014.
- ^ Conley, Dalton (March 10, 2010). "Raising E and Yo..." Psychology Today.
- ^ Greenwood, Shannon (April 14, 2022). "2. Family history, slavery and knowledge of Black history".
- ^ Thomas Sowell, Affirmative Action around the World, 2004. Basic Books. pp. 115–156.
- ^ Wilder-Hamilton, Elonda R. (2002). "Uncovering the Truth: Understanding the Impact of American Culture on the Black Male Black Female Relationship". The Black Agenda. Archived from the original on April 7, 2008. Retrieved June 3, 2007.
- ISBN 0-226-50797-1.
- .
- ^ "50 years after Loving v. Virginia, more than 1 in 6 new marriages are interracial". May 18, 2017.
- ^ "Living arrangements of children by race/Ethnicity, 1970-2022". OJJDP.
- ^ History thirteen.org
- ^ Admin, Madeo (January 29, 2018). "Black Families Severed by Slavery". Equal Justice Initiative.
- ^ Holden, Vanessa M. (July 25, 2018). "Slavery and America's Legacy of Family Separation". AAIHS.
- ^ Scott, Janny (March 23, 2008). "What Politicians Say When They Talk About Race". The New York Times. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
- ^ Bositis, David (2001). "The Black Vote in 2004" (PDF). The Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 20, 2007. Retrieved May 18, 2007.
- ^ "Reality Check: Who voted for Donald Trump?". BBC News. November 9, 2016.
- ^ "Threat and Humiliation: Racial Profiling, Domestic Security, and Human Rights in the United States" (PDF). Amnesty International. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 20, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ Kansal, Tushar (2005). Mauer, Marc (ed.). "Racial Disparity in Sentencing: A Review of the Literature" (PDF). The Sentencing Project. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2008. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ "Poverty in the United States: Frequently Asked Questions". National Poverty Center. 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ Payne, January W. (December 21, 2004). "Dying for Basic Care". Washington Post. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ Randall, Vernellia (March 25, 2007). "Institutional Racism". University of Dayton. Archived from the original on May 19, 2007. Retrieved June 1, 2007.
- ^ Richardson, Elaine and Gwendolyn Pough. "Hiphop Literacies and the Globalization of Black Popular Culture". Social Identities, vol. 22, no. 2, Mar. 2016, pp. 129–132.
- ^ Nelson, Angela M. "Black Popular Culture (US)". Encyclopedia of Race and Racism, edited by Patrick L. Mason, 2nd ed., vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2013, pp. 275–284.
- ^ Dodds, Sherril. "Hip Hop Battles and Facial Intertexts". Dance Research, vol. 34, no. 1, May 2016, pp. 63–83.
- ^ Kitwana, Bakari. The Hip Hop Generation : Young Blacks and the Crisis in African American Culture. New York : Basic Civitas, c. 2002, 2002.
- ^ Porfilio, Brad J.1, et al. "Ending the 'War against Youth:' Social Media and Hip-Hop Culture as Sites of Resistance, Transformation and (Re) Conceptualization". Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies (JCEPS), vol. 11, no. 4, November 2013, pp. 85–105.
- ISBN 978-0-19-534835-4.
- ^ Hutchinson, Earl Ofari (December 14, 2004). "King would not have marched against gay marriage". The San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
Gay-rights groups ... quot[ed] a public statement Coretta Scott King issued in 1996, in which she said that King would be a champion of gay rights if he were alive.
- ^ Sharpton Pledges Fight Against Homophobia Among Blacks, The New York Sun, August 3, 2005. "Rev. Sharpton has pledged to jumpstart a grassroots movement that would address the issue of homophobia in the black community. ... Al Sharpton was the only presidential candidate last year who unapologetically supported gay marriage, surprising critics who have tried to label him as a one-issue activist. ... Rev. Sharpton, who marched in the Gay Pride Parade this year for the first time, is perhaps the very person who can make a dent in the rampant homophobic views so entrenched in the African-American community."
- ^ Sandalow, Marc (July 16, 2003). "Democrats divided on gay marriage". The San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved January 11, 2008.
- ^ Gecewicz, Claire (October 7, 2014). "Blacks are Lukewarm to Gay Marriage, but Most Say Businesses Most Provide Wedding Services to Gay Couples". Pew Research Center. Retrieved December 2, 2015.
- ^ "Dis-membering Stonewall". HuffPost. June 26, 2012.
- ^ Smitherman, Geneva. Black Talk: Words and Phrases from the Hood to the Amen Corner. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000.
- ^ "GHETTO". Archived from the original on May 11, 2008. Retrieved May 11, 2008. Kim Pearson
- ISBN 0-415-92000-0.
- ^ Douglas A. Smith, "The Neighborhood Context of Police Behavior", Crime and Justice, Vol. 8, Communities and Crime (1986), pp. 313–341.
- ISBN 0-8147-8267-1.
- ISBN 0-87395-564-1.
- ^ "Church Culture as a Strategy of Action in the Black Community", Mary Pattillo-McCoy, American Sociological Review, Vol. 63, No. 6 (December 1998), pp. 767–784.
- ^ "'Gathering the Spirit' at First Baptist Church: Spirituality as a Protective Factor in the Lives of African American Children" by Wendy L. Haight; Social Work, Vol. 43, 1998.
- ^ "Black architecture still standing, the Shotgun House" Archived October 5, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The Great Buildings Collection on CD-ROM Kevin Matthews. African American Registry.
- ^ Wood, Molly (June 8, 2020). "From BlackPlanet to Black Twitter, the evolution of Black voices on social". Marketplace.
- ^ Auxier, Brooke (December 11, 2020). "Social media continue to be important political outlets for Black Americans".
- ^ "Why Black Teens Are the Biggest Users of Instagram and Snapchat". AfroTech. June 12, 2018.
- ^ Maina, Beatrice (June 8, 2023). "Black Culture: 5 African American Cultural Values With Rich History".
- ^ Wesson, Stephen (August 16, 2022). "Education in Enslaved Communities | Teaching with the Library". Library of Congress Blogs.
- ^ "Slavery and the Making of America". Thirteen. July 6, 2023. Retrieved August 13, 2023.
Bibliography
- Hamilton, Marybeth: In Search of the Blues.
- ISBN 978-0-8078-3325-4(with CD and DVD)
- ISBN 978-0-8078-3346-9(Cover :photo of James Son Thomas)
- ISBN 978-0-306-80327-7
- ISBN 978-0-393-33750-1
- Sheldon Harris; Blues Who's Who Da Capo Press, 1979
- Robert Nicholson; Mississippi Blues Today! Da Capo Press (1999) ISBN 978-0-306-80883-8
- ISBN 978-0-14-006223-6
- Frederic Ramsey Jr.; Been Here And Gone – 1st edition (1960) Rutgers University Press – London Cassell (UK) and New Brunswick, New Jersey; 2nd printing (1969) Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey; (2000) University of Georgia Press
- Wiggins, David K. and Ryan A. Swanson, eds. Separate Games: African American Sport behind the Walls of Segregation. University of Arkansas Press, 2016. xvi, 272 pp.
- Charles Reagan Wilson, ISBN 978-0-8078-1823-7
Primary sources
- Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, Volume II. (Bulletin, 1916, No. 39, 1917) online