African Americans in San Francisco

Add links
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Part of a series on
Ethnicity in the San Francisco Bay Area
Part of a series on
African Americans
History
Periods
Aspects
Migrations
Culture
Lifeways
Schools
Academic study
Celebrations
Economic class
Symbols and ideas
Religion
Institutions
Theologies
Non-Christian groups
Politics
Organizations
Ideologies
Civic/economic groups
Organizations
Sports
Athletic associations and conferences
Sub-communities
Multiethnic
Specific ancestries
Sexual orientation
Dialects and languages
English dialects
Languages and other dialects
Population
US states
US cities
Historic places
Population count
Diaspora
Prejudice
Racism
Stereotypes and media depictions

Fillmore District earned the neighborhood the nickname the "Harlem of the West," referring to New York City's Harlem neighborhood, which is associated with African American culture.[3]

Among the United States' biggest 14 cities, San Francisco is near the bottom in the percentage of Black residents, along with San Jose, which is about four percent Black.[1]

The Black population of San Francisco has a large presence in

SoMa, Fillmore District, and Visitacion Valley; and a decreased presence in Oceanview, and Potrero Hill
.

History

Businesswoman and abolitionist Mary Ellen Pleasant arrived in San Francisco during the Gold Rush

Early California to the 19th-century

People of African descent first appeared in California from

Spanish Conquest.[4][5] Influential people of African ancestry were among the earliest California settlers and landowners.[6]

William Alexander Leidesdorff, helped establish the city of San Francisco.[8][9]

During the 1849–1855

Fugitive Slave Act expired in 1855, they also risked being captured and sold into slavery unless they could prove they had lived in the state since before 1849.[12]

The third of three statewide

Phillip Alexander Bell. By 1860, there were 1,176 African-Americans living in San Francisco, or 2% of the city's population, most of them middle class.[14] The San Francisco Athenaeum and Literary Society, established in 1853, which included a saloon and an 800 book library, was a gathering place for African-Americans at that time.[15][16]

The new community established the first black Baptist church west of the Rockies in 1852, originally called the First Colored Baptist Church of San Francisco, and now known as the Third Baptist Church, a city-designated landmark on McAllister Street. Other African American churches founded in 1852 in San Francisco included Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church (Bethel AME Church), and African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AME Zion Church).[17][18][19]

Despite discrimination in employment, by 1862, African-Americans in San Francisco owned $300,000 in assets, mostly real estate. $100,000 of this was owned by two people: Mary Ellen Pleasant ($30,000) and a partner of hers, Richard Barber ($70,000).[20]

By the 1870s, the Gold Rush boom was over; 60% of African-American men and 97% of women were working in the service industry, as waiters, draymen, porters, maids, ship cooks, stewards.[21] The rise of discriminatory white labor unions in the late 19th century, compounded by increased immigration from Europe and Asia, made it harder for black residents to find jobs. In 1885, the Palace Hotel replaced their entire black staff with white union workers.[22]

20th century

From 1921 until 1972, the

Phillip Alexander Bell

Around the 1920s during the end of the

Pullman Porters, Lew Purccell and Sam King owned the black and tan "So Different Club" and "Purcell's", where pianist Sid Pirotti played in a ragtime ensemble.[27][28] Jelly Roll Morton opened the Jupiter club on Columbus Avenue in 1917, also a black and tan club.[29]

During the

South. The city's Black population rose considerably during World War II, when the War Manpower Commission recruited African Americans from the South to work the recently acquired Naval Docks in Hunters Point
of San Francisco. Word soon spread that African Americans could find work in San Francisco, with many of them moving to the newly constructed war housing in Hunter's Point.

Fillmore District

By the end of World War II, the center for Black life, music and entertainment had moved to the Fillmore District, earning it the title of "Harlem of the West."[30] A small, but existent community of African Americans were present in the Fillmore District after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, but it wasn't until World War II when the Fillmore District and San Francisco as a whole began to have a large African-American population. Between the years of 1940 and 1950 the African American population of San Francisco grew from 4,836 to 43,460.[31] going from 0.5% to 4.5% of the city's total population.[31] A vast majority of these African Americans went on to occupy the Fillmore District. This large migration of African Americans was due to three major factors. The first was that the Japanese internment in 1942 left a large number of unoccupied homes and businesses within the Fillmore. The second was that the shipbuilding industry and wartime economy created by WWII brought a large number of wartime jobs into the city.[32] The third was that many African Americans left the south in the Great Migration in order to escape the Jim Crow laws which existed there.[31][32]

After the war, the African American population contributed significantly to the growing jazz culture in the Fillmore, with clubs, such as Jimbo's Bop City and the New Orleans Swing Club (ca 1950–1965),[33] flourishing there. Billie Holiday, Dizzy Gillespie, Miles Davis, Kenny Dorham, and Dexter Gordon were entertainers who performed in the Fillmore during its heyday.[34] In addition, the trend of African American migration to the city and the district continued at a fast pace until it reached a peak of about 13 percent in the 1970s.[31][35]

The Church for the Fellowship of All Peoples was opened in 1948 by Howard Thurman, becoming the first racially integrated interfaith church in the United States.[36]

The influx of African Americans during and after

Civil Rights Movement succeeded in making significant legal gains for African Americans and many other ethnic groups.[39]
However, there are still significant social tensions which exist today.

From its high point in the 1970s, San Francisco's Black population has dwindled for a variety of reasons, including the city's high cost of living, urban renewal which tore down black neighborhoods, gentrification, redlining, and Black exodus from high crime areas to the suburbs.[40][41]

Social issues and relationship with police

See also: Hunters Point social uprising (1966)

The city's African American community has had a mixed-opinion relationship with the

San Francisco County Jail's inmates are Black, which is 9-10 times higher than the city's African American residence percentage, which was 6-7% during this time period. Those who were considered to be in need of specialized mental health help, rose from 56% in 2008, to 71% in 2013, which accounted for inmates of all races.[42] People who were Black and Hispanic American made up a higher proportion of officer-involved fatalities in the Bay Area, which African Americans making up 27% of the 110 deaths from January 2015 to July 2018. This is roughly four times higher than the Bay Area's 7-8% Black community.[43]

Hunter's Point
, 1966

On September 27, 1966, a riot broke out in the proximity of the housing projects of Griffith and Oakdale Avenue in the Hunters Point neighborhood when Matthew Johnson, a 16-year-old Black boy suspected of stealing a car, was shot and killed by White SFPD officer Alvin Johnson. Three warning shots were fired towards the car Johnson was driving, and a fourth shot struck Matthew's back. The riots lasted for four days, and 359 arrests were made, and 51 people were injured as a result of the unrest. Riots occurred in the Bayview/Hunter's Point neighborhood, where Molotov cocktails and rocks were thrown at police and civilians, as well as the Fillmore District, and Mission High School. After reports of gunfire from the Bayview Community Center, police fired into the center, where several hundred adults and children had gathered, resulting in seven injuries. The National Guard and California Highway Patrol were deployed by Governor Pat Brown during the violence until October 1, when the riots became less destructive. On October 20, 1966, Alvin Johnson was declared by the San Francisco County District Attorney's office to have committed a justifiable homicide, and did not face charges as a result.[44]

The

open carry armed citizen patrols to protect against police brutality and put forth the idea of community policing based on San Francisco districts.[46]

In 1968, the Officers for Justice association was formed, spearheaded by Black police officer

Prentice Earl Sanders. In 1973 the group filed a class-action discrimination lawsuit in federal court against the San Francisco Police Department, the city, and County of San Francisco, and the Civil Service Commission for their failure to recruit and hire minorities. Sanders later became the city's first Black chief of police.[47]

The Peoples Temple in San Francisco, founded by Jim Jones, was headquartered in San Francisco during the early to mid-1970s. The temple, which would later be involved in a mass suicide and murder in Guyana in 1977, recruited and appealed to many working-class African-Americans throughout the U.S.[48]

Christopher Muhammad at San Francisco March 2016 protest against police violence - 3

Also during the 1970s, a series of black-on-white murders labeled the

Zebra Killings caused police to treat every black man in San Francisco as a suspect, issuing a "Z-card" to anyone who was "cleared" of being a suspect. The murders were eventually determined to have been committed by members of a splinter group of the Nation of Islam.[49]

On December 2, 2015, five SFPD officers shot and killed 26-year-old African American Mario Woods on Keith Street in Bayview. Woods, a suspect in a stabbing and wounding of a man, was confronted by officers on a sidewalk and was armed with a kitchen knife. The shooting, recorded by at least two bystanders, showed Woods being shot with a

marijuana. Mario Woods Day was declared an unofficial holiday in the city on July 22, Woods' birthday.[51]

On November 23, 2020, for the first time in San Francisco history, a police officer was charged with an on-duty killing. Chris Samayoa, who was on the force for four days at the time of the incident, shot and killed Keita O'Neal, 42, an assault and car theft suspect, in Bayview-Hunters Point, on December 1, 2017. O'Neal allegedly assaulted a female

San Leandro Police Officer Jason Fletcher Tasered 32-year-old African American Steven DeMarco Taylor twice in a San Leandro Walmart, and then shot him once in the chest while a backup officer had just arrived several seconds prior to the shot being fired. The incident was caught on body cameras; Taylor was suspected of stealing items in the store or causing a disturbance, and started swinging or handling a metal baseball bat. Taylor was still armed with the bat, but did not advance towards Fletcher as he was being Tasered and then shot. On September 2, 2020, Fletcher was charged with voluntary manslaughter and was arraigned on September 15.[53]

Crime in Black community

San Francisco and the general Bay Area's Black community has dealt with street and prison gangs, drug-related crime and other crimes over the decades.[citation needed]

The gang

Hunters Point projects.[55]

In 2004, Westmob member David Hill, then 21, fatally shot SFPD Officer Isaac Espinoza, 29, and wounded his partner with an

life without parole.[56]

In April 2009, two Westmob members were involved in a West Point Road shooting of a man they suspected was a snitch of a case involving Westmob members. The bullets missed the intended victim, and almost struck his 5-year-old brother. Two weeks later, the two gunmen shot the intended victim nine times in front of his home as he was cutting his younger brother's hair. He survived. In 2013, both gunmen, who were 23 and 25 during this year, were convicted of two counts of attempted murder, and were facing life sentences.[57]

In January 2015, four young Black men (ages 19 to 22) were shot to death while sitting in a car at Laguna and Page Street in the area of Fillmore District/

Black Guerilla Family.[58][59]

In 2019, although African Americans only made up 5% of San Francisco's population, 22% of aggravated assault victims, and 17% of sexual assault victims were Black.[60]

Politics

Mayor London Breed

Asian American mayor, on December 12, 2017, San Francisco-born London Breed
took his place as the city's acting mayor. She was officially sworn as an official mayor on July 11, 2018, being San Francisco's first female African-American mayor.

Culture

Museum of the African Diaspora Members Outside

Aside from their extensive contributions to San Francisco's musical history, African Americans have also added to the city's cultural life in literature, art, education, theater and media.[citation needed]

Marcus Books was founded in 1960 as one of the country's first Black bookstores and became the oldest African American bookstore in the United States. It closed its San Francisco location in 2014 but has an office in Oakland and plans to reopen again at the African American Art and Culture Complex.[62][63]

The first university Black studies department in the United States was created at San Francisco State University in 1968, following a student strike.[64]

The

St. John Coltrane African Orthodox Church, founded in 1971, continues to hold services in the Fillmore District.[65]

The

Lorraine Hansberry Theater, founded in 1981, produces classics of African American theater as well as new plays.[66] Pomo Afro Homos was a theater group created in the 1990s to give voice to Black Gay Male voices.[67]

Radio station

rap music in 1979.[68] In the 1990s, the radio station KMEL was also influential in broadcasting the new sounds of San Francisco and Oakland Hip Hop artists.[69]

The ongoing San Francisco Black Film Festival was created in 1998 to share the work of local as well as global filmmakers.[70] Films of the 21st century that have focused on San Francisco's Black community include The Last Black Man in San Francisco, and Straight Outta Hunter's Point.[71]

The Museum of the African Diaspora, which opened in 2005 at Yerba Buena Gardens, documents the history, art and culture of the African Diaspora.[72]

The African American Art and Culture Complex on Fulton Street in the Fillmore District hosts workshops, art events and the city's Juneteenth Festival. Created in the 1970s, it is now home to ten separate black arts organizations, including the African American Historical and Cultural Society, founded in 1955,[73] and the African-American Shakespeare Company, founded in 1994.[63]

Historical sites

Cadillac Hotel (c. 1913), Tenderloin
Cadillac Hotel (c. 1913), Tenderloin
Madame C.J. Walker Home for Girls and Women, Upper Fillmore
Madame C.J. Walker Home for Girls and Women, Upper Fillmore

Notable people

Business

William Alexander Leidesdorff
memorial in San Francisco, CA

Politics and law

Activism

Poet and activist Maya Angelou was the first Black female cable car conductor in San Francisco

Film

Danny Glover, actor and Native San Franciscan

Literature

Music

Cindy Herron of En Vogue EpcotMarch2015

Medical

Journalism

Sports

A right-handed batting baseball player with SF on his black cap stares towards the camera, with a baseball grandstand in the background
San Francisco Giants' player Willie Mays in 1961

Artists

Photographer David Johnson at Opal Gallery March 25, 2010 (2)
  • Mildred Howard (born 1945), sculptor and mixed media artist, was born in San Francisco and raised in Berkeley, California.[108]
  • Sargent Claude Johnson (1888–1967), a visual artist who studied painting, drawing and sculpting; he moved to San Francisco at the age of 27.[109]
  • California School of Fine Arts (or San Francisco Art Institute).[110]
  • Hayward Ellis King (1928–1990), visual artist and curator, he was the first Black artist to serve as both director and curator of a major San Francisco Bay Area art gallery.[111]
  • genocide in Rwanda, and the Second Chechen War. Studied photography at the San Francisco Art Institute.[112]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "San Francisco's black population dwindling". The Seattle Times. May 11, 2015.
  2. U.S. Census Bureau
    . 2019.
  3. ^ Pepin, Elizabeth; Watts, Lewis (2006). Harlem of the West: The San Francisco Fillmore Jazz Era.
  4. S2CID 145420060
    .
  5. ISBN 978-1-59714-145-1
    .
  6. ^ Mills, Michelle (February 4, 2016). "Exhibit explores the African ancestry of the founders of Los Angeles". San Gabriel Valley Tribune.
  7. SFGATE
    . Retrieved February 16, 2021.
  8. ^ Fuller, Thomas (June 4, 2019). "Last Black Man in San Francisco". The New York Times.
  9. ^ Schneider, Benjamin (December 8, 2021). "The incredible story of William Leidesdorff, San Francisco's Black founding father". San Francisco Examiner. Retrieved January 16, 2023.
  10. ^ "African Americans in the Gold Rush | American Experience | PBS". www.pbs.org.
  11. ^ "EARLY POLITICAL ORGANIZING - FoundSF". www.foundsf.org.
  12. ^ African American City Wide Historic Context Statement, City and County of San Francisco, 2016
  13. ^ Lapp, Rudolph, Blacks in Gold Rush California Yale University Press, 1977
  14. ^ Giesberg, Judith, The Army at Home: Women and the Civil War on the Northern Home Front, University of Northern Carolina Press, 2009, p. 98
  15. ^ City and County of San Francisco, African American Citywide Historic Context Statement, 2016
  16. ^ "February 2012: African American History Month". Mechanics' Institute. February 1, 2012.
  17. ^ "SF's oldest African-American church designated as landmark". SFGATE. November 16, 2017.
  18. ^ Philip M. Montesano, San Francisco Black Churches in the Early 1860's: Political Pressure Groups, California Historical Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 2 (Summer, 1973), pp 145-152,
  19. JSTOR 25157430
    .
  20. ^ City and County of San Francisco, (2016),African-American City Wide Historic Context Statement
  21. ^ "BLACKS AND LABOR - FoundSF". www.foundsf.org.
  22. ^ City and County of San Francisco, Africa American Citywide Historic Context Statement, 2016
  23. ^ "San Francisco Landmark #211: Walker House". noehill.com. Retrieved January 21, 2024.
  24. ISBN 978-1-879367-03-6
    .
  25. ^
    SFGATE. Archived from the original
    on October 7, 2023. Retrieved January 21, 2024.
  26. ISBN 978-1-4396-4928-2
    .
  27. ^ Leta E. Miller, Music and Politics in San Francisco, University of California Press, p. 97
  28. ^ Kamiya, Gary (September 29, 2017). "SF's forgotten jazz pioneer". San Francisco Chronicle.
  29. ^ Kamiya, Gary (October 26, 2013). "Barbary Coast joint hosted jazz pioneer". SFGATE.
  30. ^ Silva and Watts, Harlem of The West, Heyday Books, February 3, 2020
  31. ^ a b c d Lai, Clement. "The Racial Triangulation Of Space: The Case Of Urban Renewal In San Francisco's Fillmore District."Annals Of The Association Of American Geographers 102.1 (2012): 151-170. SocINDEX with Full Text. Web. October 24, 2016.
  32. ^ a b c Miller, Paul T. The Postwar Struggle for Civil Rights: African Americans in San Francisco, 1945-1975. New York: Routledge, 2010. Print.
  33. ^ one time donation (April 24, 2018). "Jimbo's Bop City". FoundSF. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  34. ^ "PBS | The Fillmore: Music Scene". www.pbs.org.
  35. ^ San Francisco's Japantown. n.p.: Charleston, S.C. : Arcadia, [2005], 2005. Ignacio: USF Libraries Catalog. Web. October 31, 2016.
  36. ^ Fulbright, Leslie (February 16, 2009). "Some S.F. African American history landmarks". SFGATE.
  37. ^ O’Rourke, Tim (November 14, 2016). "Chronicle Covers: When Willie Mays was denied housing because he was black". San Francisco Chronicle.
  38. ^ "Segregation and the Civil Rights Movement in San Francisco - FoundSF". www.foundsf.org.
  39. ^ Harris, April L. "Fillmore District, San Francisco | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed." Fillmore District, San Francisco. BlackPast, 2007. Web. 3 Nov. 2016.
  40. ^ "San Francisco's black population dwindling | The Seattle Times". May 11, 2015.
  41. ^ "Bay Area gentrification displacing communities of color". August 6, 2019.
  42. ^ Fagan, Kevin; Cote, John; Lagos, Marisa (August 19, 2013). "S.F. jail inmates 56% black". San Francisco Chronicle.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. San Jose Mercury
    . June 28, 2020.
  44. ^ "Lodi News-Sentinel - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com.
  45. ^ Purnell and Theoharia, The Strange Careers of the Jim Crow North: Segregation and Struggle outside of the South, New York University Press, 2019, p. 229
  46. ^ "Black Panthers - FoundSF". www.foundsf.org.
  47. ^ Russell, Ron. "Earl's Last Laugh", San Francisco Weekly, February 21, 2007
  48. ^ Los Angeles Herald Examiner, "The Political Pull of Jim Jones", November 21, 1978
  49. ^ City and County of San Francisco, (2016),African-American City Wide Historic Context Statement
  50. ^ Police say SF officer shoots suspect in Baview, San Francisco Chronicle, December 4, 2015.
  51. ^ Ho, Vivian (February 11, 2016). "Mario Woods had 20 bullet wounds, drugs in system, autopsy shows". San Francisco Chronicle.
  52. ^ de Leon, Concepcion (November 23, 2020). "Ex-Police Officer Charged With Manslaughter in 2017 Killing of Suspect". The New York Times.
  53. ^ "Police officer charged with manslaughter in fatal shooting of Black man at California Walmart". USA Today.
  54. ^ "Straight Outta Hunter's Point DVD | StreetGangs.Com". Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 14, 2012.
  55. ^ Sward, Susan (December 16, 2001). "THE KILLING STREETS / A Cycle of Vengeance / BLOOD FEUD / In Bayview-Hunters Point, a series of unsolved homicides has devastated one of S.F.'s most close-knit communities". SFGATE.
  56. ^ Van Derbeken, Jaxon; Lagos, Marisa; Buchanan, Wyatt (April 20, 2007). "AK-47 cop killer gets life". San Francisco Chronicle.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. ^ "Members of vicious S.F. gang convicted in attempted murder". San Francisco Examiner. May 30, 2013.
  58. ^ "Arrest made in quadruple homicide in San Francisco's Hayes Valley". ABC 7 News. July 30, 2016.
  59. ^ Lamb, Jonah Owen (July 29, 2016). "Longtime suspect arrested in quadruple Hayes Valley homicide". San Francisco Examiner.
  60. ^ "Chinese residents fear they are targeted by criminals, but the data tells a different story". The San Francisco Examiner. September 7, 2019.
  61. ^ Coile, Zachary (November 14, 1997). "Legal pioneer Cecil Poole dies at 83". SFGATE.
  62. ^ "Marcus Books, the Nation's Oldest Black Bookstore - FoundSF". www.foundsf.org.
  63. ^ a b Brown, Lynn (July 23, 2016). "Preserving the Soul of Black San Francisco • EBONY". EBONY.
  64. ^ Rooks, Nowlie (February 10, 2006). "The Beginnings of Black Studies". www.chronicle.com. Retrieved March 2, 2021.
  65. ^ "Five Decades On, An Eclectic Church Preaches The Message Of John Coltrane". NPR.org.
  66. ^ "How Margo Hall's storied career led to her running Lorraine Hansberry Theatre". October 15, 2020.
  67. ^ Jones, Chad (October 15, 2012). "Pomo Afro Homos: 'Fierce' force returns". SFGATE.
  68. ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (March 14, 2001). "Joe Rudolph, 63, Co-founded KPOO". SFGATE.
  69. ^ Bodenheimer, Rebecca (May 13, 2020). "Bay Rising: Oakland Music's Moment in the Sun, 30 Years Later". The Ringer.
  70. ^ "Kali O Ray, director of San Francisco Black Film Festival, dies at 48".
  71. ^ Wagner, Venise (June 29, 2001). "Straight outta Hunters Point / Kevin Epps' bleak documentary shows the disintegration of a place he has called home for 30 years". SFGATE.
  72. ^ EST, Kathleen Rellihan On 02/04/21 at 7:00 AM (February 4, 2021). "Where to Learn About African American History Across the U.S." Newsweek.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  73. ^ "San Francisco African American Historical & Cultural Society". www.sfaahcs.org.
  74. ISSN 0362-4331
    .
  75. ISBN 978-0-7385-9580-1
    .
  76. ISSN 1932-8672
    . Retrieved June 16, 2023.
  77. ^ "Mary Ellen Pleasant". National Park Service. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  78. ^ Beasley, Delilah Leontium (1919). The Negro Trail Blazers of California: A Compilation of Records from the California Archives in the Bancroft Library at the University of California in Berkeley and from the Diaries, Old Papers and Conversations of Old Pioneers in the State of California. It is a True Record of Facts, as They Pertain to the History of the Pioneer and Present Day Negroes of California. Times Mirror Print. and Binding House. p. 119.
  79. ISBN 978-1-4680-9681-1
    .
  80. Newspapers.com
    .
  81. ^ Lohse, Bill (January 22, 2007). "Peter Lester (1814- ? )". BlackPast.org. Retrieved November 4, 2023.
  82. S2CID 149593602
    – via JSTOR.
  83. ISBN 978-0-8118-4548-9
    .
  84. ^ "Cecil F. Poole Announces His Resignation (1969)". diva.sfsu.edu. KPIX-TV. Retrieved January 1, 2020.
  85. ^ Chakraborty, Sudeepto (July 3, 2020). "Ella Hill Hutch". Changemakers: Biographies of African Americans in San Francisco Who Made a Difference. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  86. ^ CHAKRABORTY, SUDEEPTO (July 2020). "CHIEF PRENTICE EARL SANDERS". Changemakers: Biographies of African Americans In San Francisco Who Made a Difference. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  87. ^ Schiesl, Martin (September 16, 2018). "LONDON NICOLE BREED (1974- )". Black Past. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  88. ^ "Before Rosa Parks there was Charlotte L. Brown in 1863 San Francisco". Black History Heroes. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  89. ^ Whitney, Todd (February 24, 2016). "A Brief History of Black San Francisco". Crosscurrents. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  90. ^ "Sarah Webster Fabio". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  91. ^ Janiak, Lily (May 19, 2017). "Mary L. Booker, Leader of Bayview Community Theater, Dies". SFGATE. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  92. ISBN 978-1-4396-3082-2
    .
  93. ^ "History". San Francisco State University.
  94. ^ "About GLIDE - Fifty Years of Love in Action in San Francisco". GLIDE - San Francisco: serving the people of the Tenderloin and San Francisco since 1963. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  95. ^ "Actor and activist Danny Glover to be honored by San Francisco State University". San Francisco State University. April 26, 1999.
  96. ^ "San Francisco filmmaker Kevin Epps rearrested for 2016 murder". KTVU FOX 2. May 8, 2019. Retrieved May 29, 2023.
  97. ^ Molanphy, Tom (June 21, 2022). "'We're still here': Kevin Epps celebrates 20 years of 'Straight Outta Hunters Point'". 48 Hills. Retrieved May 29, 2023.
  98. ^ "Maya Angelou". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  99. ^ Folkart, Burt A. (January 14, 1986). "Bob Kaufman, One of Original S.F. Beatnik Poets, Dies". Los Angeles Times.
  100. ISBN 978-0-85712-595-8
    .
  101. ^ Chan, Sylvia W. "Soul survivor: Martin Luther challenges S.F. with The Calling". San Francisco Bay Guardian. Archived from the original on January 1, 2003.
  102. ^ "Rapper Larry June's New EP Reflects His San Francisco Origins". SF Weekly. July 14, 2016. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
  103. ^ "Talking With Prezi, the Rapper Pledging to 'Do Better' for Hunters Point". KQED. March 26, 2018. Retrieved May 29, 2023.
  104. ^ "Etta James". Biography. April 27, 2017. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  105. ^ Prato, Greg. "Artist Biography". All Music.
  106. ^ "How 24kGoldn went from USC freshman to Spotify-topping hip-hop star". Los Angeles Times. October 14, 2020.
  107. ^ "Philip Alexander Bell". Oxford Reference. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  108. ^ Mendel, Emily S. (March 1, 2019). "Striking artwork by long-time Berkeley resident, artist Mildred Howard installed at OMCA". Berkeleyside. Retrieved May 21, 2023.
  109. ISSN 0362-4331
    . Retrieved May 21, 2023.
  110. ^ Schwab, Katharine (July 22, 2013). "Photographer David Johnson in spotlight". SFGate. Archived from the original on April 15, 2019.
  111. ^ "Hayward Ellis King". San Francisco Arts Commission. Retrieved May 20, 2023.
  112. ^ Laurent, Olivier. "Stanley Greene: The Death of a Poet". TIME.com. Retrieved June 21, 2020.

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=African_Americans_in_San_Francisco&oldid=1217979661"