African diaspora
American, Caribbean), French (Canadian, Haitian), Haitian Creole, Spanish, Portuguese, Papiamento, Dutch and African languages | |
Religion | |
---|---|
Christianity, Islam, Traditional African religions, Afro-American religions | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Africans, African Americans |
The global African diaspora is the worldwide collection of communities descended from people from Africa, predominantly in the Americas.[39] The African populations in the Americas are descended from haplogroup L genetic groups of native Africans.[40][41] The term most commonly refers to the descendants of the native West and Central Africans who were enslaved and shipped to the Americas via the Atlantic slave trade between the 16th and 19th centuries, with their largest populations in the United States, Brazil, and Haiti (in that order).[42][43] However, the term can also be used to refer to African descendants who immigrated to other parts of the world consensually. Some[quantify] scholars identify "four circulatory phases" of this migration out of Africa.[44] The phrase African diaspora gradually entered common usage at the turn of the 21st century.[45] The term diaspora originates from the Greek διασπορά (diaspora, "scattering") which gained popularity in English in reference to the Jewish diaspora before being more broadly applied to other populations.[46]
Less commonly, the term has been used in scholarship to refer to more recent emigration from Africa.[47] The African Union (AU) defines the African diaspora as consisting: "of people of native or partial African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union".[48] Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union".[49]
History
Dispersal through slave trade
Many Africans dispersed throughout North America, South America, Europe, and Asia during the Atlantic, Trans-Saharan, and Indian Ocean slave trades.
The earliest recorded evidence of Africans as slaves outside of Africa comes from Ancient Greece and Rome. In the Greco-Roman world, almost all native Africans were known primarily as Aithiopians, a term that means "burnt face" (αἴθω, aíthō, 'I burn' + ὤψ, ṓps, 'face'), rather than referring to the geographical location of Ethiopia.[50] Most Aithiopian slaves in the Greco-Roman world came from Kush (modern-day Sudan), after they became prisoners of war in altercations with nearby Egypt. Archaeological evidence shows that a very small proportion of slaves in the Greco-Roman world were Aithiopian, in part due to the distance required for import. Aithiopian slaves were primarily engaged in domestic and entertainment work, leading archaeologists to believe that they were considered an expensive luxury. In one ostentatious display, the Roman Emperor Nero filled a theater with Aithiopian slaves to demonstrate the wealth and power of Rome to a visiting foreign king.[51]
At the beginning of the 8th century, Arabs took African slaves from the central and eastern portions of the African continent (where they were known as the Zanj) and sold them into markets in the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, and the Far East.
Beginning in the early 15th century, Europeans captured or bought
In the Americas, the confluence of multiple
Dispersal through voluntary migration
From the very onset of Spanish exploration and colonial activities in the Americas, Africans participated both as voluntary expeditionary and as slave laborers.
Concepts and definitions
The African Union defined the African diaspora as "[consisting] of people of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union." Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union."
Between 1500 and 1900, approximately four million enslaved Africans were transported to island plantations in the Indian Ocean as part of the Indian Ocean slave trade, roughly eight million were shipped northwards as part of the Trans-Saharan slave trade, and roughly eleven million were transported to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.[58] Their descendants are now found around the globe, but because of intermarriage they are not necessarily readily identifiable.
Social and political
Many scholars have challenged conventional views of the African diaspora as a mere dispersion of African people. For them, it is a movement of liberation that opposes the implications of
African diaspora and modernity
In the last decades, studies on the African diaspora have shown an interest in the roles that
Richard Iton's view of diaspora
Cultural and political theorist Richard Iton suggested that diaspora be understood as a "culture of dislocation." For Iton, the traditional approach to the African diaspora focuses on the ruptures associated with the Atlantic slave trade and Middle Passage, notions of dispersal, and "the cycle of retaining, redeeming, refusing, and retrieving 'Africa.'"[62]: 199 This conventional framework for analyzing the diaspora is dangerous, according to Iton, because it presumes that diaspora exists outside of Africa, thus simultaneously disowning and desiring Africa. Further, Iton suggests a new starting principle for the use of diaspora: "the impossibility of settlement that correlates throughout the modern period with the cluster of disturbances that trouble not only the physically dispersed but those moved without traveling."[62]: 199–200 Iton adds that this impossibility of settlement—this "modern matrix of strange spaces—outside the state but within the empire"—renders notions of black citizenship fanciful, and in fact, "undesirable". Iton argues that we citizenship, a state of statelessness thereby deconstructing colonial sites and narratives in an effort to "de-link geography and power," putting "all space into play" (emphasis added)[62]: 199–200 For Iton, diaspora's potential is represented by a "rediscursive albeit agonistic field of play that might denaturalize the hegemonic representations of modernity as unencumbered and self-generating and bring into clear view its repressed, colonial subscript".[62]: 201
Populations and estimated distribution
African diaspora populations include but are not limited to:
- Afro-Latin Americans, Black Canadians – descendants of enslaved West Africans brought to the United States, the Caribbean, Central America and South America during the Atlantic slave trade.
- Afro-Arabs (Afro-Saudis, Afro-Omanis, Afro-Syrians, Afro-Palestinians, Afro-Iraqis, Afro-Jordanians, etc.), Afro-Iranians, Afro-Turks – descendants of Zanj slaves whose ancestors were brought to the Near East and other parts of Asia during the Indian Ocean slave trade.[63]
- Siddis – descendants of Zanj slaves whose ancestors were brought to the Indian subcontinent (Pakistan and India). Also referred to as the Makrani in Pakistan.
Continent or region | Country population | Afro-descendants | [64] African and African-mixed population |
---|---|---|---|
Caribbean | 41,309,327 | 67% | 27,654,061 |
Saint Kitts and Nevis | 39,619 | 98% | 38,827 |
Dominica | 71,293 | 96% (87% African + 9% Mixed) | 61,882 + 9,411 |
Haiti | 10,646,714 | 95% | 10,114,378 |
Antigua and Barbuda | 78,000 | 95% | 63,000 |
Jamaica[65] | 2,812,090 | 92.1% | 2,663,614 |
Grenada | 110,000 | 91% | 101,309 |
The Bahamas | 332,634 | 90.6% (African + British mixed) | 301,366 |
Barbados | 281,968 | 90% | 253,771 |
Puerto Rico[66] | 3,285,874 | 17.5% (African + Taino mixed) | 558,598 |
Netherlands Antilles | 225,369 | 85% | 191,564 |
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 118,432 | 85% | 100,667 |
Dominican Republic[67][68] | 10,090,000 | 11% Afro | 1,109,900 |
British Virgin Islands | 24,004 | 83% | 19,923 |
Saint Lucia | 172,884 | 83% | 142,629 |
US Virgin Islands | 108,210 | 80% | 86,243 |
French Guiana | 199,509 | 66% | 131,676 |
Bermuda | 66,536 | 61% | 40,720 |
Cayman Islands | 47,862 | 60% | 28,717 |
Cuba[69] | 11,116,396 | 35% | 3,890,738 |
Trinidad and Tobago[70] | 1,215,527 | 34.2% | 415,710 |
South America | 388,570,461 | N/A | N/A |
Brazil[2] | 213,650,000 | 8% African only | 17,092,000 |
Suriname | 475,996 | 37% | 223,718 |
Guyana | 770,794 | 36% | 277,486 |
Colombia[71] | 48,258,494 | 9.34% (inc. mulattoes, palenqueros and other groups) | 4,671,160 |
Ecuador[72] | 13,927,650 | 5% | 680,000 |
Paraguay | 6,349,000 | 4% (Mulatto) | 222,215 |
Uruguay | 3,494,382 | 4% | 139,775 |
Venezuela[73] | 27,227,930 | 3% (African) | 181,157 |
Peru | 29,496,000 | 2% | 589,920 |
Chile | 17,094,270 | 1% | 170,943* |
North America | 450,545,368 | 10% | 42,907,538 |
United States[74] | 328,745,538 | 12% | 42,020,743 |
Mexico | 108,700,891 | 1% | 1,386,556[11] |
Canada[75] | 39,566,248 | 4% | 1,547,870 |
Central America | 41,283,652 | 4% | 1,453,761 |
Belize | 301,270 | 31% | 93,394 |
Panama | 3,292,693 | 11% | 362,196 |
Nicaragua | 5,785,846 | 9% | 520,726 |
Costa Rica | 4,195,914 | 3% | 125,877 |
Honduras | 7,639,327 | 2% | 152,787 |
Europe | 738,856,462 | 1% | < 8,000,000 |
France[76] | 68,000,000 | 8% (inc. overseas territories) | Approximately 3.3–5.5 millions (5–8% of the French population).
It is illegal for the French State to collect data on ethnicity and race. |
Portugal | 10,467,366 | 7% (At least 3.0%) | At least 310,000 (2022); only people with recent immigrant background. It is illegal for the Portuguese State to collect data on ethnicity and race. so the numbers are likely much higher. Other estimates suggest that there are 260,000 Cape Verdeans alone, 179,524 Angolans, 80,570 Mozambicans and at least more than 30,000 São Tomeans and 60,000 Bissau-Guineans.[25] |
United Kingdom | 67,886,004 | 5% ( inc. partial ) |
3,000,000 |
Netherlands[citation needed] | 16,491,461 | 3% | 507,000 |
Belgium | 10,666,866 | 3% | ~300,000 |
Spain | 47,615,033 | 2,5% (including Maghrebis) | 1,206,701 (Of those ~300,000 are Black Sub-Saharan African) |
Sweden | 10,379,295 (2020) | 2.3% | 236,975 (2020) |
Italy[77][78] | 60,795,612 | 2% (including Maghrebis) | 1,036,653 (Of those ~450,000 are Black Sub-Saharan African) |
Ireland[79] | 4,339,000 | 1.38% | 64,639 |
Germany | 82,000,000 | 1.2% (including Maghrebis) | 1,000,000 (Of those ~500,000 are Black Sub-Saharan African)[80] |
Finland | 5,533,793 (2020) | 1.03% | 57,496 (2020) |
Norway[81] | 4,858,199 | 1% | 67,000 |
Switzerland[82] | 7,790,000 | 1% | 57,000 |
Russia[83] | 141,594,000 | <1% | 50,000 |
Asia | 3,879,000,000 | <1% | ≈327,904 |
Israel[84] | 7,411,000 | 3% | 200,000 |
India[85] | 1,132,446,000 | <1% | 40,000 |
Malaysia[86] | 28,334,135 | <1% | 31,904 |
Hong Kong | 7,200,000 | <1% | < 20,000[87] |
China[88] | 1,321,851,888 | <1% | 16,000[89] |
Japan[90] | 127,756,815 | <1% | 10,000 |
The Americas
- African Americans – There are an estimated 43 million people of black African descent in the United States.
- Afro-Latin Americans – There are an estimated 100 million people of African descent living in Latin America,[91] including 67 million in South America, making up 28% of Brazil's population, if including multiracial mulatto pardo Brazilians. When including Pardo Brazilians, people of African descent make up a majority of the country. Many also have European and Amerindian ancestry, and are also known as pardo, or mixed race. Brazilians who identify as "black" are mixed to a significant degree, and a minority of them even have a majority of European DNA.[92][3] There are also sizeable African-descended populations in Cuba, Haiti, Colombia and Dominican Republic, often with ancestry of other major ethnic groups.
- Afro-Caribbeans – The population in the Caribbean is approximately 23 million. Significant numbers of African-descended people include Haiti – 8 million, Dominican Republic – 7.9 million, and Jamaica – 2.7 million,[93]
Caribbean
The first Africans in the Americas arrived in the region during the initial period of
During the 17th and 18th centuries, most European colonies in the Caribbean operated on
Beginning in 1791, the
During the 20th century, Afro-Caribbean people began to assert their cultural, economic and political rights on the world stage. The Jamaican
North America
United States
Several migration waves to the Americas, as well as relocations within the Americas, have brought people of African descent to North America. According to the
In the establishment of the African diaspora, the transatlantic slave trade is often considered the defining element, but people of African descent have engaged in eleven other migration movements involving North America since the 16th century, many being voluntary migrations, although undertaken in exploitative and hostile environments.[99]
In the 1860s, people from
Today 1.7 million people in the United States are descended from voluntary immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa, most of whom arrived in the late twentieth century. African immigrants represent 6 percent of all immigrants to the United States and almost 5 percent of the African-American community nationwide. About 57 percent immigrated between 1990 and 2000.[103] Immigrants born in Africa constitute 1.6 percent of the black population. People of the African immigrant diaspora are the most educated population group in the United States—50 percent have bachelor's or advanced degrees, compared to 23 percent of native-born Americans.[104][105] The largest African immigrant communities in the United States are in New York, followed by California, Texas, and Maryland.[103]
Due to the legacy of slavery in the colonial history of the United States, the average African American has a significant European component to his DNA.[106] According to a study conducted in 2011, the African American DNA consists on average of 73.2% West African, 24% European and 0.8% Native American DNA.[106] The European ancestry of African Americans is largely patrilineal with an estimated 19% of African American ancestors being European males, and 5% being European females.[106] The interracial mixing occurred before the Civil War and largely in the American South, beginning during the colonial era.[106]
The states with the highest percentages of people of African descent are Mississippi (36%), and Louisiana (33%). While not a state, the population of the District of Columbia is more than 50% black.[107] Recent African immigrants represent a minority of black people nationwide. The U.S. Bureau of the Census categorizes the population by race based on self-identification.[108] The census surveys have no provision for a "multiracial" or "biracial" self-identity, but since 2000, respondents may check off more than one box and claim multiple ethnicity that way.
Canada
Much of the earliest black presence in Canada came from the newly independent United States after the American Revolution; the British resettled African Americans (known as Black Loyalists) primarily in Nova Scotia. These were primarily former slaves who had escaped to British lines for promised freedom during the Revolution.
Later during the antebellum years, other individual African Americans escaped to Canada, mostly to locations in Southwestern Ontario, via the Underground Railroad, a system supported by both blacks and whites to assist fugitive slaves. After achieving independence, northern states in the U.S. had begun to abolish slavery as early as 1793, but slavery was not abolished in the South until 1865, following the American Civil War.
Black immigration to Canada in the twentieth century consisted mostly of Caribbean descent.[109] As a result of the prominence of Caribbean immigration, the term "African Canadian", while sometimes used to refer to the minority of Canadian blacks who have direct African or African-American heritage, is not normally used to denote black Canadians. Blacks of Caribbean origin are usually denoted as "West Indian Canadian", "Caribbean Canadian" or more rarely "Afro-Caribbean Canadian", but there remains no widely used alternative to "Black Canadian" which is considered inclusive of the African, Afro-Caribbean, and African-American black communities in Canada.
Central America and South America
At an intermediate level, in South America and in the former plantations in and around the Indian Ocean, descendants of enslaved people are a bit harder to define because many people are mixed in demographic proportion to the original slave population. In places that imported relatively few slaves (like Chile), few if any are considered "black" today.[110] In places that imported many enslaved people (like Brazil or Dominican Republic), the number is larger, though most identify themselves as being of mixed, rather than strictly African, ancestry.[111] In places like Brazil and the Dominican Republic, blackness is performed in more taboo ways than it is in, say, the United States. The idea behind Trey Ellis Cultural Mulatto comes into play as there are blurred lines between what is considered as black.
In Colombia, the African slaves were first brought to work in the gold mines of the Department of Antioquia. After this was no longer a profitable business, these slaves slowly moved to the Pacific coast, where they have remained unmixed with the white or Indian population until today. The whole Department of Chocó remains a black area. Mixture with white population happened mainly in the Caribbean coast, which is a mestizo area until today. There was also a greater mixture in the south-western departments of Cauca and Valle del Cauca. In these mestizo areas the African culture has had a great influence.[112]
Europe
Some European countries make it illegal to collect demographic census information based on ethnicity or ancestry (e.g. France), but some others do query along racial lines (e.g. the UK). Of 42 countries surveyed by a European Commission against Racism and Intolerance study in 2007, it was found that 29 collected official statistics on country of birth, 37 on citizenship, 24 on religion, 26 on language, 6 on country of birth of parents, and 22 on nationality or ethnicity.
France
Estimates of 3 to 5 million of African descent,[113] although one quarter of the Afro-French population live in overseas territories. This number is difficult to estimate because the French census does not use race as a category for ideological reasons.[114]
Germany
As of 2020, there were approximately 1,000,000 Afro-Germans.[115] This number is difficult to estimate because the German census does not use race as a category.[116]
Georgia
Some black people of unknown origin (Though perceived as Ethiopians) once inhabited southern Abkhazia; today, they have been assimilated into the Abkhaz population.
Italy
African emigrants to Italy include Italian citizens and residents originally from Africa; immigrants from Africa officially residing in Italy in 2015 numbered over 1 million residents.[117]
Netherlands
There are an estimated 500,000 African or mixed African people in the Netherlands and the Dutch Antilles. They mainly live in the islands of Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao and Saint Martin, the latter of which is also partly French-controlled. Many Afro-Dutch people reside in the Netherlands.[118]
Portugal
As of 2021, there were at least 232,000 people of recent Native African immigrant background living in Portugal. They mainly live in the regions of Lisbon, Porto, Coimbra. As Portugal doesn't collect information dealing with ethnicity, the estimate includes only people that, as of 2021, hold the citizenship of an African country or people who have acquired Portuguese citizenship from 2008 to 2021, thus excluding descendants, people of more distant African ancestry or people who have settled in Portugal generations ago and are now Portuguese citizens.[119][120]
Romania
Spain
As of 2021, there were 1,206,701 Africans. They mainly live in the regions of Andalusia, Catalonia, Madrid and the Canaries.[121]
United Kingdom
There are about 2,500,000 (4.2%) people identifying as Black British (not including
Eurasia
Russia
The first Black people in
During the 1930s fifteen
Turkey
Afro-Turks are people of Zanj (Bantu) descent living in Turkey. Like the Afro-Abkhazians, they trace their origins to the Ottoman slave trade. Beginning several centuries ago, a number of Africans came to the Ottoman Empire, usually via Zanzibar as Zanj and from places such as present-day Niger, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kenya and Sudan;[127] they settled by the Dalaman, Menderes and Gediz valleys, Manavgat, and Çukurova. In the 19th century, contemporary records mention African quarters of İzmir, including Sabırtaşı, Dolapkuyu, Tamaşalık, İkiçeşmelik, and Ballıkuyu.[128] Africans in Turkey are around 100.000 people. [35]
Asia
South Asia
There are a number of communities in
Siddi people
The Siddi (pronounced
Although often economically and socially marginalised as a community today, Siddis once ruled Bengal as the Habshi dynasty of the Bengal Sultanate, while the famous Siddi, Malik Ambar, effectively controlled the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. He played a major role, politically and militarily, in Indian history by slowing down the penetration of the Delhi-based Mughalss into the Deccan Plateau of South central India.[135]
Southeast Asia
Some
West Asia
In 517 AD, the Himyarite king Ma'adikarib was overthrown by Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish leader who began persecuting Christians[147] and confiscating trade goods between Aksum and the Byzantine Empire,[148] both of which were Christian nations.[149] According to the Book of the Himyarites, a man identified as Bishop Thomas journeyed to Aksum to report on the persecution of Christians in Himyar to the Aksumite Kingdom.[150] As a result, the Aksumite king Ahayawa invaded Himyar.[151] Dhu Nuwas fled this first invasion,[152] and at least 580 Aksumite soldiers remained in Himyar.[153] Himyarites who opposed Aksumite settlement united under Dhu Nuwas,[154] and the formerly expelled king traveled back to kill the Aksumite soldiers and continue the oppression of Christians, forcing some settlers back into Aksum.[155]
A third invasion was prompted by a rebellion of Aksumite soldiers between 532 and 535,
Music and the African diaspora
Although fragmented and separated by land and water, the African Diaspora maintains connection through the use of music.[166][167] This link between the various sects of the African Diaspora is termed by Paul Gilroy as The Black Atlantic.[168] The Black Atlantic is possible because black people have a shared history rooted in oppression that is displayed in Black genres such as rap and reggae.[169] The linkages within the black diaspora formulated through music allows consumers of music and artists to pull from different cultures to combine and create a conglomerate of experiences that reaches across the world.[170]
See also
- Africanisms
- African Australians
- African Diaspora Archaeology Newsletter
- African immigration to Europe
- Afro-Latin Americans
- African diaspora religions
- Black-brown unity
- Emigration from Africa
- Genetic history of the African diaspora
- List of topics related to the African diaspora
References
- US Census Bureau. August 12, 2021. Retrieved April 26, 2022.
- ^ CIA World Fact Book. April 27, 2021. Retrieved May 3, 2021.
Population 213,445,417 (July 2021 est.) ... Ethnic groups White 47.7%, Mulatto (mixed White and Black) 43.1%, Black 7.6%, Asian 1.1%, Indigenous 0.4% (2010 est.)
- ^ PMID 21359226.
- ^ Haiti. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- ^ Crumley, Bruce (March 24, 2009), "Should France Count Its Minority Population?", Time, retrieved October 11, 2014
- ^ "Grupos étnicos información técnica". Archived from the original on April 8, 2020. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
- ^ "Yemen's Al-Akhdam face brutal oppression – CNN iReport". November 29, 2014. Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ "Saudi Arabia's African roots traced to annual Hajj pilgrimage and British colonization". Arab News. March 1, 2018. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ "2021 Census: Ethnic group, local authorities in the United Kingdom". Office for National Statistics. November 11, 2022. Retrieved February 28, 2022.
- ^ "Jamaica – People". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ INEGI. p. 77. Archived from the original(PDF) on April 22, 2017. Retrieved December 9, 2015.
- ^ "Población extranjera por país de nacionalidad, edad (grupos quinquenales) y sexo". Archived from the original on October 25, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
- ^ Census Profile, 2016 Census Archived November 8, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Statistics Canada. Retrieved November 6, 2017.
- ^ Fabrizio Ciocca (November 12, 2019). "Africani d'Italia". Neodemos (in Italian).
- ^ "The ethnicity of the Dominican population".
- ^ "Ethnic groups of the Dominican Republic". April 25, 2017.
- ^ "XIV Censo National de Poblacion y Vivienda" (PDF). May 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 5, 2019. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ "Población del país es joven y mestiza, dice censo del INEC". El Universo (in Spanish). September 2, 2011. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ "Población por sexo y zona de residencia según grupos de edades y color de la piel" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 3, 2014. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ "Puerto Rico Population Declined 11.8% from 2010 to 2020".
- ^ "Zu Besuch in Neger und Mohrenkirch: Können Ortsnamen rassistisch sein?".
Rund eine Million schwarzer Menschen leben laut ISD hierzulande.
[About one million black people are living in this country according to ISD.] - ^ "La Autoidentificación Étnica: Población Indígena y Afroperuana" (PDF) (in Spanish). 2018. p. 123. Retrieved January 16, 2024.
- ^ "Trinidad and Tobago 2011 Population and Housing Census: Demographic Report" (PDF). Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, Central Statistical Office. 2012. p. 94. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 19, 2017. Retrieved August 20, 2017.
- ^ "ABS Statistics". stat.data.abs.gov.au. November 25, 2021. Archived from the original on July 28, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2020.
- ^ a b Batista, Joana Gorjão Henriques, Frederico (July 4, 2015). "O país que tem mais gente fora do que dentro". PÚBLICO (in Portuguese). Retrieved June 4, 2023.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Barbados. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- ^ Paracha, Nadeem F. (August 26, 2018). "Smokers' corner: Sindh's African roots". DAWN.COM. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 21, 2011. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) - ^ "Censusstatistieken 2012" (PDF). Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek in Suriname (General Statistics Bureau of Suriname). p. 76. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 5, 2016. Retrieved October 23, 2017.
- ^ "Cuadro P42. Total del país. Población afrodescendiente en viviendas particulares por sexo, según grupo de edad. Año 2010" [Table P42. Total for the country. Afro-descendant population in private households by sex, according to age group, 2010]. INDEC (in Spanish). Archived from the original (XLS) on October 29, 2013.
- ^ "Cuadro P43. Total del país. Población afrodescendiente en viviendas particulares por sexo, según lugar de nacimiento. Año 2010" [Table P43. Total for the country. Afro-descendant population in private homes by sex, according to place of birth, 2010]. INDEC (in Spanish). Archived from the original (XLS) on April 18, 2014.
- ^ "Cuadro P42. Total del país. Población afrodescendiente en viviendas particulares por sexo, según grupo de edad. Año 2010" [Table P42. Total for the country. Afro-descendant population in private households by sex, according to age group, 2010]. INDEC (in Spanish). Archived from the original (XLS) on October 29, 2013.
- ^ "Cuadro P43. Total del país. Población afrodescendiente en viviendas particulares por sexo, según lugar de nacimiento. Año 2010" [Table P43. Total for the country. Afro-descendant population in private homes by sex, according to place of birth, 2010]. INDEC (in Spanish). Archived from the original (XLS) on April 18, 2014.
- ^ "Grenada". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Retrieved May 3, 2021.
- ^ a b "İstanbul'da yaşayan Afrikalıların sayısı 70 bine yakın. Ten renklerinden ötürü ötekileştirilmiyor olmak onları Türkiye'ye bağlıyor". www.trthaber.com (in Turkish). December 13, 2020. Archived from the original on December 13, 2020. Retrieved October 26, 2021.
- ^ Gribanova, Lyubov "Дети-метисы в России: свои среди чужих" Archived November 4, 2008, at the Wayback Machine (in Russian). Nashi Deti Project. Retrieved February 25, 2010.
- ^ The Sidi Project.
- ^ "The Siddis: Discovering India's little known African-origin community". The New Indian Express. March 2, 2018. Retrieved August 13, 2021.
- ^ "African Diaspora | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved May 23, 2022.
- ^ Salas, Antonio, etl. (2004). "The African Diaspora: Mitochondrial DNA and the Atlantic Slave Trade". American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (3): 454–465. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Johnson, Derek, etl. (2015). "Mitochondrial DNA diversity in the African American population". Mitochondrial DNA. 26 (3): 445–451. Retrieved February 17, 2024.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ ISBN 978-0-8061-1858-1.
- ^ Harris, J. E. (1993). "Introduction" In J. E. Harris (ed.), Global Dimensions of the African Diaspora, pp. 8–9.
- ^ "Google Books Ngram Viewer". books.google.com. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ In an article published in 1991, William Safran set out six rules to distinguish "diasporas" from general migrant communities. While Safran's definitions were influenced by the idea of the Jewish diaspora, he recognised the expanding use of the term. Rogers Brubaker (2005) also noted that use of the term "diaspora" had started to take on an increasingly general sense. He suggests that one element of this expansion in use "involves the application of the term diaspora to an ever-broadening set of cases: essentially to any and every nameable population category that is to some extent dispersed in space". An early example of the use of "African diaspora" appears in the title of Sidney Lemelle, Robin D. G. Kelley, Imagining Home: Class, Culture and Nationalism in the African Diaspora (1994).
- .
- ^ "The Diaspora Division | African Union". au.int. Retrieved May 23, 2022.
- ^ "The Diaspora Division". Statement. The Citizens and Diaspora Organizations Directorate (CIDO). Archived from the original on December 1, 2015. Retrieved January 7, 2016.
- JSTOR 408938.
- ISBN 978-0-203-78794-6, retrieved June 27, 2023
- ^ "Historical survey > The international slave trade > Slavery". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved September 30, 2007.
- ^
Olson, Steve (2003). Mapping Human History: Genes, Race, and Our Common Origins. ISBN 978-0-618-35210-4.
- ^ "One drop & one hate". American Academy of Arts & Sciences. January 2005. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
- S2CID 146963730.
- Henry Louis Gates. Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. p. 327.
- ^ "Defining and Studying the Modern African Diaspora | Perspectives on History | AHA". www.historians.org. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
- ^ PMID 22606732.
- S2CID 143048986.
- ^ Gilroy, 3
- ^ Manning, Patrick. The African Diaspora: A History Through Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009, Kindle.
- ^ a b c d Iton, Richard. In Search of the Black Fantastic: Politics and Popular Culture in the Post-Civil Rights Era. Oxford University Press, 2010.
- ^ Labbż, Theola (January 11, 2004). "A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 14, 2011.
- ^ "The World Factbook>". cia.gov. Archived from the original on February 20, 2011. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ Jamaica. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- ^ "Puerto Rico: 2020 Census". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved April 7, 2022.
- ^ "Dominican Republic: Racial and Ethnic Groups". Countrystudies.us. U.S. Library of Congress.
- ^ http://www.informaworld.com/index/902542287.pdf Inter-American Dialogue [dead link]
- ^ Cuba. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- ^ Trinidad and Tobago. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- ^ "Colombia una nación multicultural: su diversidad étnica". dane.gov.co (in Spanish). Archived from the original on April 8, 2020. Retrieved November 6, 2021.
- ^ "POBLACIÓN ECUATORIANA POR AUTODEFINICIÓN ÉTNICA EN EL VI CENSO DE POBLACIÓN DEL AÑO". INEC (in Spanish). Archived from the original on February 8, 2008.
- ^ Resultado Basico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011 Archived December 3, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, (p. 14).
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook – United States". Cia.gov. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ "Visible minority population, by province and territory (2001 Census)". 0.statcan.ca. September 11, 2009. Archived from the original on September 16, 2008. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- INSEE.
- ^ "ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica), Popolazione residente 2015". Demo.istat.it. Archived from the original on September 20, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
- ^ "ISTAT (Istituto Nazionale di Statistica), Cittadini Stranieri, Bilancio Demografico 2015 Africa". Demo.istat.it. Archived from the original on June 13, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
- ^ "Ireland: People". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved December 20, 2008.
- ^ OnlineFOCUS Staff Writer (December 30, 2020). "Zu Besuch in Neger und Mohrenkirch: Können Ortsnamen rassistisch sein? [Can place names be racist?]". FOCUS Online (in German). Retrieved April 27, 2021.
- ^ "Statistics Norway – Persons with immigrant background by immigration category, country background and sex. 1 January 2010" (in Norwegian). Ssb.no. January 1, 2010. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ "Federal Office of Statistics". Archived from the original on January 16, 2013. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ "Мймй Зпмдео Й Мймй Дйлупо. Фемертпелф "Юетоще Тхуулйе": Уйопруйу". Africana.ru. Archived from the original on January 15, 2011. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ "Music Earns Black Hebrews Some Acceptance". Archived from the original on April 8, 2006. Retrieved May 20, 2013.
- ^ "colaco.net". colaco.net. Archived from the original on February 26, 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ Lisa Goh (May 6, 2012). "Fear and prejudice". The Star. Archived from the original on May 6, 2012. Retrieved February 20, 2013.
- ^ Fenn, Andrea, The pride, passion and purpose of HK's Africans, China Daily, July 6, 2010.
- ^ "Global View: China: Foreign ghosts". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. June 30, 2005. Archived from the original on January 20, 2011. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ Zhuang Pinghui (November 1, 2014). "Guangzhou clarifies size of African community amid fears over Ebola virus". South China Morning Post. Retrieved February 11, 2018.
- ^ POP AFRICA[permanent dead link] (Nagoya University) from the statictics at 2005 by the Immigration Bureau of Japan
- ^ López, Gustavo; Gonzalez-Barrera, Ana. "Afro-Latino: A deeply rooted identity among U.S. Hispanics". Pew Research Center. Retrieved May 22, 2022.
- ^ "Brazil". The World Factbook. December 15, 2021.
- ^ "World Population 2004 chart, UN" (PDF). United Nations. Retrieved September 2, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-19-530173-1. Archivedfrom the original on February 22, 2021. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
- ^ Foner, Laura, and Eugene D. Genovese, eds. Slavery in the New World: A Reader in Comparative History. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-465-00071-5.
- ^ Philippe Girard, "Jean-Jacques Dessalines and the Atlantic System: A Reappraisal," William and Mary Quarterly (July 2012).
- ISBN 9780807857724
- ^ a b Dodson, Howard, and Sylviane A. Diouf, eds (2005). In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience Archived February 26, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library. Retrieved November 24, 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-374-11396-4.
It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. [Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," in Journal of African History 30 (1989), p. 368.] ... It is widely conceded that further revisions are more likely to be upward than downward.
- ^ United States African-American Population. CensusScope, Social Science Data Analysis Network. Retrieved December 17, 2007.
- ^ "Heroes in the Ships: African Americans in the Whaling Industry". Old Dartmouth Historical Society / New Bedford Whaling Museum, 2001.
- ^ a b Dodson, Howard and Sylviane A. Diouf, eds (2005). "The Immigration Waves: The numbers" Archived January 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library. Retrieved November 24, 2007.
- ^ Dodson, Howard and Sylviane A. Diouf, eds (2005). "The Brain Drain". Archived May 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Reversing Africa's 'brain drain'", In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library. Retrieved November 24, 2007.
- ^ PMID 25529636.
- ^ DeBonis, Mike (February 4, 2015). "D.C., where blacks are no longer a majority, has a new African American affairs director". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 6, 2016.
- ^ U.S. Census Bureau. State & County QuickFacts Archived September 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved November 6, 2007.
- ISBN 978-1-85109-700-5.
- ^ Harry Hoetink, Caribbean Race Relations: A Study of Two Variants (Lon-don, 1971), xii.
- ^ Clara E. Rodriguez, "Challenging Racial Hegemony: Puerto Ricans in the United States," in Race, ed. Steven Gregory and Roger Sanjek (New Brunswick NJ, 1994), 131–45, 137. See also Frederick P. Bowser, "Colonial Spanish America," in Neither Slave Nor Free: The Freedmen of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World, ed. David W. Cohen and Jack P. Greene (Baltimore, 1972), 19–58, 38.
- JSTOR 646706.
- ^ Kimmelman, Michael (June 17, 2008). "For blacks in France, Obama's rise is reason to rejoice, and to hope". The New York Times. Retrieved October 18, 2021.
- ^ 1/4 of the French African population comes from the Caribbean islands. in French Archived September 26, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Zu Besuch in Neger und Mohrenkirch: Können Ortsnamen rassistisch sein?". December 30, 2020.
Rund eine Million schwarzer Menschen leben laut ISD hierzulande.
- ISBN 1-58046-183-2.
- ^ Dati ISTAT 2016. "Cittadini stranieri in Italia – 2016". tuttitalia.it.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Gowricharn, Ruben S. ( 2006 ). Caribbean Transnationalism: Migration, Pluralization, and Social Cohesion. Lexington Books.
- ^ "Sefstat" (PDF).
- ^ "Portal do INE". www.ine.pt. Retrieved June 4, 2023.
- ^ "Población residente por fecha, sexo, nacionalidad (agrupación de países) y lugar de nacimiento (agrupación de países)(9691)". INE (in Spanish). Archived from the original on October 25, 2022. Retrieved December 17, 2022.
- ^ a b "Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English". Africana.ru. Archived from the original on January 15, 2011. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ Gnammankou, Dieudonné. Abraham Hanibal – l'aïeul noir de Pouchkine Archived March 15, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, Paris, 1996.
- ^ "Barnes, Hugh. Gannibal: The Moor of Petersburg". London: Profile Books. 2005. Archived from the original on January 14, 2011. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ Eric Foner, "Three Very Rare Generations" review of Yelena Khanga's family memoir Soul To Soul: A Black Russian American Family 1865–1992, in The New York Times, December 13, 1992.
- ^ "Film: Black Russians". MediaRights.org. Archived from the original on April 17, 2011. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ "Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt". Today's Zaman. May 11, 2008. Archived from the original on August 27, 2008. Retrieved August 28, 2008.
- ^ "Afro-Türklerin tarihi, Radikal, 30 August 2008. Retrieved 22 January 2009". Radikal.com.tr. August 30, 2008. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
- ^ Shanti Sadiq Ali, The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times The African Dispersal in the Deccan: From Medieval to Modern Times], Orient Blackswan, 1996.
- ISBN 3-86537-206-6. Retrieved October 19, 2021.
- ^ Malik Ambar: The African slave who built Aurangabad and ruined the game for Mughals in the Deccan, May 15, 2020, retrieved May 15, 2020
- PMID 21741027.
- scheduled tribe. According to the 1981 census, the population of the Siddi tribe is 54,291. The Siddi speak Gujarati language within their kin circle as well as with the outsiders. Gujarati script is used...
- ISBN 978-81-250-0485-1,
Among the Siddi families in Karnataka there are Catholics, Hindus and Muslims... It was a normal procedure for the Portuguese to baptise African slaves ... After living for generations among Hindus they considered themselves to be Hindus.... The Siddi Hindus owe allegiance to Saudmath ...
- ^ Roychowdhury, Adrija (June 5, 2016). "African rulers of India: That part of our history we choose to forget". The Indian Express. New Delhi. Archived from the original on July 28, 2021. Retrieved September 10, 2021.
- ^ Runoko Rashidi (November 4, 2000). "Black People in the Philippines". Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. Retrieved September 29, 2007.
- ^ "West Papua New Guinea: Interview with Foreign Minister Ben Tanggahma". July 25, 2007. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved September 29, 2007.
- ^ Iniyan Elango (August 8, 2002). "Notes from a Brother in India: History and Heritage". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved September 29, 2007.
- ^ Horen Tudu (August 8, 2002). "The Blacks of East Bengal: A Native's Perspective". Archived from the original on September 28, 2007. Retrieved September 29, 2007.
- ^ Runoko Rashidi (November 19, 1999). "Blacks in the Pacific". Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved September 29, 2007.
- ^ "Micronesians". Newcastle University. Retrieved September 2, 2017.
- ISBN 978-0-465-09838-5
- S2CID 3078465.
- PMID 10378454.
- PMID 12478481.
- ^ "WorldHaplogroupsMaps.pdf" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 28, 2004.
- ^ "73. The Conversion of the People of Najrân". The Chronicle of Seert. Translated by Alcock, Anthony. 2014.
- ISBN 0271005319.
- ^ Procopius (1914). Procopius, with an English translation by H. B. Dewing. Vol. 1. Translated by Dewing, Henry Bronson. London: William Heinemann. pp. 189, 193.
- ^ Moberg, Axel, ed. (1924). The book of the Himyarites : fragments of a hitherto unknown Syriac work. Lund : C.W.K. Gleerup. p. ci.
- ^ Moberg (1924), pp. ci. Some sources (e.g. Acta Sanctorum) indicate that the king at this time was not Ahayawa, but Kaleb; other sources (e.g. Procopius) begin with the second invasion led by Kaleb.
- ^ Acta Sanctorum. Brussels. 1861. Octobris X, index chronologicus, saeculo VI.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Cited in Kobishchanov (1990), p. 91. (The Tapharis named in Acta Santorum is Zafar, Yemen.) - ^ Moberg (1924), pp. ci–cii, cv. Page ci establishes that the first presence of Aksumites (Abyssinians) in Himyar was due to Ahayawa's (HWYN') invasion. Page cv indicates that Dhu Nuwas (Masrūq) killed 300 Aksumite soldiers on one occasion and 280 on another, leading to the conclusion that at least 580 Aksumite soldiers were in Himyar. Page cii shows that these killings happened soon after Ahayawa's invasion, suggesting that the 580 Aksumite soldiers were part of the invasion.
- ^ Kobishchanov 1990, p. 92.
- ^ Moberg 1924, pp. cii.
- ^ Kobishchanov 1990, p. 100.
- ^ Procopius 1914, p. 189.
- ^ Moberg 1924, pp. cxlii, cxxxiv–cxxxv.
- ^ a b c Procopius 1914, p. 191.
- .
- ^ Procopius 1914, p. 193.
- ^ a b Kobishchanov 1990, p. 105.
- ^ Arafat, W. "Bilа̄l b. Rabа̄ḥ". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second edition. Isḥа̄q (1998). The Life Of Muhammad. Karachi: Oxford University Press. pp. 143–144.
- ^ Isḥа̄q 1998, pp. 235–236.
- ^ Sīrat ibn Hishа̄m (2000). M. Hа̄rūn, 'Abdus-Salа̄m (ed.). Biography of the Prophet. Cairo: Al-Falah Foundation for Translation, Publication and Distribution.
- ^ "Selena Gomez and Rema on Winning the First Ever Afrobeats Award at the 2023 MTV VMAs". www.zaminna.com. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ "Is All This Because Of The Internet?". www.zaminna.com. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ISBN 9780674076068.
- ^ Veal, Michael (2007). Dub: Soundscapes and Shattered Songs in Jamaican Reggae. Wesleyan University Press. pp. 454–467.
- S2CID 133614797.
Further reading
- Arthur, John A. (2008). The African Diaspora in the United States and Europe: the Ghanaian experience. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-4841-3.
- ISBN 978-1-85109-700-5.
- Carter, Donald Martin (2010). Navigating the African Diaspora: The Anthropology of Invisibility. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-4777-4.
- Conyers, James L. Jr. (2009). Racial Structure and Radical Politics in the African Diaspora. London: Transaction. ISBN 978-1-4128-1045-6.
- Curry, Dawne Y.; Duke, Eric D.; Smith, Marshanda A. (2009). Extending the Diaspora: New Histories of Black People. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03459-6.
- Hine, Darlene Clark; Danielle Keaton, Trica; Small, Stephen (2009). Black Europe and the African Diaspora. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07657-2.
- Karmwar, Manish (January 1, 2010). "African Diaspora in India". Diaspora Studies. 3 (1): 69–91. S2CID 152992988. Archived from the original on February 5, 2021. Retrieved November 13, 2020.)
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link - ISBN 978-0-253-35337-5..
- Olaniyan, Tejumola; Sweet, James H (2010). The African Diaspora and the Disciplines. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35464-8.
- Olliz-Boyd, Antonio (2010). The Latin American Identity and the African Diaspora: Ethnogenesis in Context. Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1-60497-704-2.
- Wisdom, Tettey; Puplampu, Korbla P (2005). The African Diaspora in Canada: negotiating identity & belonging. University of Calgary Press. ISBN 978-1-55238-175-5.
External links
- "The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean World", Omar H. Ali, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture
- The History of Black People in Britain
- "Museum of the African Diaspora", Online exhibits and other resources from the San Francisco-based museum.
- The African Diaspora Policy Centre (ADPC)