Chlorocebus
Chlorocebus | |
---|---|
Chlorocebus head color patterns Top left: vervet
| |
Scientific classification | |
Domain: | Eukaryota |
Kingdom: | Animalia |
Phylum: | Chordata |
Class: | Mammalia |
Order: | Primates |
Suborder: | Haplorhini |
Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
Family: | Cercopithecidae |
Subfamily: | Cercopithecinae |
Tribe: | Cercopithecini |
Genus: | Chlorocebus J. E. Gray, 1870 |
Type species | |
Simia aethiops Linnaeus, 1766
| |
Species | |
|
Chlorocebus is a genus of medium-sized primates from the family of Old World monkeys. Six species are currently recognized, although some people classify them all as a single species with numerous subspecies. Either way, they make up the entirety of the genus Chlorocebus.
Confusingly, the terms "vervet monkey" and "green monkey" are sometimes used to refer to the whole genus Chlorocebus, though they also refer more precisely to species Chlorocebus pygerythrus and Chlorocebus sabaeus, respectively, neither of which is the type species for Chlorocebus. This article uses the term Chlorocebus consistently for the genus and the common names only for the species.
The native
Taxonomy
The classification of the Chlorocebus monkeys is undergoing change. They were previously lumped together with the medium-sized arboreal African monkeys of the
Common name | Scientific name and subspecies | Range | Size and ecology | IUCN status and estimated population |
---|---|---|---|---|
Bale Mountains vervet | C. djamdjamensis (Neumann, 1902) Two subspecies
|
Eastern Africa |
Size: 43–45 cm (17–18 in) long, plus 47–50 cm (19–20 in) tail[3] Habitat: Forest[4] Diet: Leaves and fruit, as well as flowers, small vertebrates, shoots, stems, and roots[5] |
VU
|
Dryas monkey | C. dryas (Schwarz, 1932) |
Central Africa |
Size: 36–40 cm (14–16 in) long, plus 48–52 cm (19–20 in) tail[6] Habitat: Forest[7] Diet: Fruit, leaves, shoots, pith, seeds, insects, and mushrooms[7] |
EN
|
Green monkey | C. sabaeus (Linnaeus, 1766) |
Western Africa |
Size: 42–46 cm (17–18 in) long, plus 42–72 cm (17–28 in) tail[3] Habitat: Forest and savanna[8] Diet: Fruit and leaves[9] |
LC
|
Grivet | C. aethiops (Linnaeus, 1758) Two subspecies
|
Eastern Africa |
Size: 40–60 cm (16–24 in) long, plus 30–50 cm (12–20 in) tail[10] Habitat: Savanna and shrubland[11] Diet: Fruit, insects, and vegetable matter, as well as small mammals and birds[10] |
LC
|
Malbrouck | C. cynosuros (Scopoli, 1786) |
Southern Africa |
Size: 34–70 cm (13–28 in) long, plus 44–79 cm (17–31 in) tail[12] Habitat: Forest and savanna[13] Diet: Fruit, as well as shoots, stems, gum, and seeds[12] |
LC
|
Tantalus monkey | C. tantalus (Ogilby, 1841) Three subspecies
|
Equatorial Africa |
Size: 38–83 cm (15–33 in) long, plus 55–114 cm (22–45 in) tail[14] Habitat: Forest and savanna[15] Diet: Fruit, buds, seeds, roots, bark, and gum, as well as insects, small vertebrates and eggs[14] |
LC
|
Vervet monkey | C. pygerythrus (F. Cuvier, 1821) Five subspecies
|
Eastern and southern Africa |
Size: 42–57 cm (17–22 in) long, plus 48–75 cm (19–30 in) tail[14] Habitat: Savanna, shrubland, and forest[16] Diet: Leaves, flowers, fruit, seeds, arthropods, and gum[17] |
LC
|
The most basal member of the genus is thought to be the dryas monkey (C. dryas), which was previously classified in Cercopithecus and may potentially warrant its own genus.[18]
Physical description
The
Behavior and ecology
Unlike the closely related
Chlorocebus monkeys live in multiple male/multiple female groups, which can be as large as 76 individuals.[2] The group hierarchy plays an important role: dominant males and females are given priority in the search for food, and are groomed by subordinate members of the group. They exhibit female philopatry, a social system whereby the females remain in the same home range where they were born, and males leave once sexually mature.[2] These monkeys are territorial animals, and a group can occupy an area of approximately .06 to 1.78 km2 (0.023 to 0.687 sq mi).[19] They use a wide variety of vocalizations.[2] They can with warn off members of other groups from their territory, and they can also warn members of their own troop of dangers from predators, using different calls for different predators.[2] Monkeys scream when they are disciplined by members of the troop. Facial expressions and body posturing serve as additional communication tools.[2] Their social interactions are highly complex. Where alliances can be formed for benefit, deception is sometimes used. Physical affection is important between family members.
Chlorocebus monkeys are, along with
To signal mating readiness, the female presents her vulva to the male. Since groups are made of several more females than males, each male mates with several females. Generally, the male will display a striking, light-blue scrotal pouch, most prevalent during the mating season. Males do not take part in raising the young, but other females of the group (the "aunties") share the burden. The dominance hierarchy also comes into play, as the offspring of the more dominant group members get preferential treatment. The gestation time is about 163–165 days,[2] and births are typically of a single young. The births usually happen at the beginning of the rainy season, when sufficient food is available. The young are weaned at about six months of age and are fully mature in four to five years. The life expectancy of the green monkeys is 11–13 years in captivity,[2] and about 10–12 years in the wild.
Human interaction
In the Caribbean islands, interactions between humans and monkeys are sometimes problematic. On the island of Barbados, farmers complain about the monkeys damaging their crops, and many try to find ways to keep them at bay. On Halloween 2006, a monkey was suspected of causing an island-wide, eight-hour blackout. The monkey apparently climbed a light pole and tripped an 11,000- and 24,000-volt powerline.[21][22][23][24]
In some African countries, many monkeys are killed by power lines, dogs, predatory animals e.g. wild cats, vehicles, shooting, poisoning, and hunting for sport. Added to this, an increase in desertification, and loss of habitat due to agriculture and urbanisation has occurred. As a result, the population numbers in troops are declining in urban areas to an average of between 15 and 25 individuals, with many troops disappearing altogether.[citation needed]
Use in scientific research and vaccine production
The African
Chlorocebus monkeys are an important model organism for studies of AIDS, microbiome, development, neurobehavior, neurodegeneration, metabolism and obesity.[34] A genome of chlorocebus monkey (Chlorocebus sabaeus) was sequenced[35] and the genome reference with gene models is available in genome browsers NCBI Chlorocebus_sabeus 1.1 and Ensembl Vervet-AGM (Chlorocebus sabaeus) Archived 2021-05-13 at the Wayback Machine. It facilitated genomic investigations in this monkey, including population genetics studies across Africa and Caribbean[36] and characterization of gene expression regulation across development in brain and peripheral tissues,[37] during prenatal development,[38] and during reaction to psychosocial stress related to relocation and social isolation.[39]
Epigenetic clock based on CpG methylation in DNA - a complex biomarker of aging - was developed for Chlorocebus sabaeus in several variants: tissue-specific clocks for brain cortex, blood, and liver; multitissue clock; and human-sabaeus monkey clocks.[40]
References
- ^ Development evolves; they adapt. St. Petersburg Times. Accessed 2008-07-11
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Cawthon Lang, K.A. (2006). "Primate Factsheets: Vervet (Chlorocebus) Taxonomy, Morphology, & Ecology". Primate Info Net. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
- ^ a b Kingdon 2015, p. 152
- ^ .
- ^ Kingdon 2014, p. 289
- ^ Kingdon 2015, p. 158
- ^ .
- ^ .
- ^ Keller, Matthew (2010). "Chlorocebus sabaeus". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on July 24, 2023. Retrieved July 24, 2023.
- ^ a b Rochester, Melissa Jill (2023). "Chlorocebus aethiops". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on April 1, 2023. Retrieved August 16, 2023.
- ^ .
- ^ a b Kingdon 2014, p. 286
- ^ .
- ^ a b c Kingdon 2015, p. 151
- ^ .
- ^ .
- ^ Kingdon 2014, p. 279
- PMID 31529046.
- .
- YouTubeAccessed 2009-09-15.
- ^ Monkey shuts down island for seven hours. Caribbean Broadcasting Corporation. "Monkey shuts down island for seven hours - CBC.bb". Archived from the original on March 24, 2007. Retrieved November 8, 2006.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link). Accessed 2008-07-11 - ^ Dawne Bennett (2006-11-02). "Monkey business leaves Barbados without electricity". Caribbean Net News. Archived from the original on 2010-03-30. Retrieved 2014-01-02.
- ^ Monkey business. The Barbados Advocate. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 23, 2007. Retrieved August 6, 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link). Accessed 2008-07-11 - ^ The morning the power went out in Barbados. The Barbados Advocate. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on March 23, 2007. Retrieved August 6, 2022.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link). Accessed 2008-07-11 - ^ "Cells in culture". Microscopy Resources Center. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2008.
- S2CID 207223617.
- ISBN 978-0-309-08327-0.
- ISBN 978-0-309-08945-6.
- PMID 18676179.
- PMID 23349627.
- PMID 24623416.
- PMID 33158452.
- S2CID 29065812.
- PMID 24174437.
- PMID 26377836.
- PMID 29083404.
- PMID 29083405.
- PMID 31969210.
- PMID 32103041.
- PMID 34591235.
Sources
- Kingdon, Jonathan (2014). Mammals of Africa. Vol. II: Primates. ISBN 978-1-4081-8991-7.
- Kingdon, Jonathan (2015). The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals (Second ed.). ISBN 978-1-4729-2531-2.