Aftermath of World War II
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The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of two global
Once allies during World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became competitors on the world stage and engaged in the
As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the
The end of the war opened the way for decolonization from the great powers. Independence was granted to
The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia, with the
Immediate effects of World War II
At the end of the war, millions of people were dead and millions more homeless, the European economies had collapsed, and much of Europe's industrial infrastructure had been destroyed. The German people as a whole, but its youth in particular, ended up being deeply scorched psychologically by the ordeal which they went through during the previous decade, from the time when the
The
United Kingdom
By the end of the war, the economy of the United Kingdom was one of severe privation. More than a quarter of its national wealth had been consumed. Until the introduction in 1941 of Lend-Lease aid from the US, the UK had been spending its assets to purchase American equipment including aircraft and ships—over £437 million on aircraft alone. Lend-Lease came just before its reserves were exhausted. Britain had placed 55% of its total labour force into war production.
In spring 1945, the Labour Party withdrew from the wartime coalition government, in an effort to oust Winston Churchill, forcing a general election. Following a landslide victory, Labour held more than 60% of the seats in the House of Commons and formed a new government on 26 July 1945 under Clement Attlee.
Britain's war debt was described by some in the American administration as a "millstone round the neck of the British economy". Although there were suggestions for an international conference to tackle the issue, in August 1945 the U.S. announced unexpectedly that the Lend-Lease programme was to end immediately.
The abrupt withdrawal of American Lend-Lease support to Britain on 2 September 1945 dealt a severe blow to the plans of the new government. It was only with the completion of the Anglo-American loan by the United States to Great Britain on 15 July 1946 that some measure of economic stability was restored. However, the loan was made primarily to support British overseas expenditure in the immediate post-war years and not to implement the Labour government's policies for domestic welfare reforms and the nationalisation of key industries. Although the loan was agreed on reasonable terms, its conditions included what proved to be damaging fiscal conditions for sterling. From 1946 to 1948, the UK introduced bread rationing, which it had never done during the war.[2][3][4][5]
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by about 27 million during the war; of these, 8.7 million were combat deaths. The 19 million non-combat deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentration camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in German industry; famine and disease; conditions in Soviet camps; and service in German or German-controlled military units fighting the Soviet Union.[6] The population would not return to its pre-war level for 30 years.[7]
Soviet ex-
The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of the Soviet Union's capital resources were destroyed, and industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the Soviet government obtained limited credits from Britain and Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union coerced Soviet-occupied Central and Eastern Europe to supply machinery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satellites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The reconstruction programme emphasised heavy industry to the detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953, steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the production of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower than it had been in the late 1920s.[10]
The immediate post-war period in Europe was dominated by the Soviet Union
Germany
In the east, the
Germany paid
US policy in post-war Germany from April 1945 until July 1947 had been that no help should be given to the Germans in rebuilding their nation, save for the minimum required to mitigate starvation. The Allies' immediate post-war "industrial disarmament" plan for Germany had been to destroy Germany's capability to wage war by complete or partial de-industrialization. The first industrial plan for Germany, signed in 1946, required the destruction of 1,500 manufacturing plants to lower German heavy industry output to roughly 50% of its 1938 level. Dismantling of West German industry ended in 1951. By 1950, equipment had been removed from 706
After the German surrender, the
France
As
When the Provisional Government of the French Republic established control, the Épuration légale ("legal purge") began. There were no international war crimes trials for French collaborators, who were tried in the domestic courts. Approximately 300,000 cases were investigated; 120,000 people were given various sentences including 6,763 death sentences (of which only 791 were carried out). Most convicts were given amnesty a few years later.
Italy
The aftermath of World War II left Italy with an anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the
King
The 1947,
The 1947 Treaty of Peace compelled Italy to pay $360 million (US dollars at 1938 prices) in war reparations: $125 million to Yugoslavia, $105 million to Greece, $100 million to the Soviet Union, $25 million to Ethiopia and $5 million to Albania. In 1954 the Free Territory of Trieste, an independent territory between northern Italy and Yugoslavia under direct responsibility of the United Nations Security Council, was divided between the two states, Italy and Yugoslavia. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when Trieste was formally re-annexed to Italy after the Treaty of Osimo. In 1950, Italian Somaliland was made a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration until 1 July 1960.
Austria
The Federal State of Austria had been annexed by Germany in 1938 (Anschluss, this union was banned by the Treaty of Versailles). Austria (called Ostmark by the Germans) was separated from Germany and divided into four zones of occupation. With the Austrian State Treaty, these zones reunited in 1955 to become the Republic of Austria.
Japan
After the war, the Allies rescinded
Hundreds of thousands of Japanese were forced to relocate to the Japanese main islands. Okinawa became a main US staging point. The US covered large areas of it with military bases and continued to occupy it until 1972, years after the end of the occupation of the main islands. The bases still remain. To skirt the
To further remove Japan as a potential future military threat, the Far Eastern Commission decided to de-industrialise Japan, with the goal of reducing Japanese standard of living to what prevailed between 1930 and 1934.[35][36] In the end, the de-industrialisation programme in Japan was implemented to a lesser degree than the one in Germany.[35] Japan received emergency aid from GARIOA, as did Germany. In early 1946, the Licensed Agencies for Relief in Asia were formed and permitted to supply Japanese with food and clothes. In April 1948 the Johnston Committee Report recommended that the economy of Japan should be reconstructed due to the high cost to US taxpayers of continuous emergency aid.
Survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, known as hibakusha (被爆者), were ostracized by Japanese society. Japan provided no special assistance to these people until 1952.[37] By the 65th anniversary of the bombings, total casualties from the initial attack and later deaths reached about 270,000 in Hiroshima[38] and 150,000 in Nagasaki.[39] About 230,000 hibakusha were still alive as of 2010[update],[38] and about 2,200 were suffering from radiation-caused illnesses as of 2007[update].[40]
Finland
In the Winter War of 1939–1940, the Soviet Union invaded neutral Finland and annexed some of its territory. From 1941 until 1944, Finland aligned itself with Nazi Germany in a failed effort to regain lost territories from the Soviets. Finland retained its independence following the war but remained subject to Soviet-imposed constraints in its domestic affairs.
The Baltic states
In 1940 the Soviet Union invaded and annexed the neutral
The Philippines
An estimated one million military and civilian Filipinos were killed from all causes; of these 131,028 were listed as killed in seventy-two war crime events. According to a United States analysis released years after the war, U.S. casualties were 10,380 dead and 36,550 wounded; Japanese dead were 255,795.[42]
Population displacement
As a result of the new borders drawn by the victorious nations, large populations suddenly found themselves in hostile territory. The Soviet Union took over areas formerly controlled by Germany, Finland, Poland, and Japan. Poland lost the
During the war, the United States government interned approximately 110,000
Poland
The Soviet Union expelled at least 2 million Poles from the east of the new border approximating the
Rape during occupation
In Europe
As Soviet troops marched across the Balkans, they committed rapes and robberies in Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.[46] The population of Bulgaria was largely spared of this treatment, possibly due to a sense of ethnic kinship or to the leadership of Marshal Fyodor Tolbukhin.[46] The population of Germany was treated significantly worse.[47] Rape and murder of German civilians was as bad as, and sometimes worse than, Nazi propaganda had anticipated.[48][49] Political officers encouraged Soviet troops to seek revenge and terrorise the German population.[50] On "the basis of Hochrechnungen (projections or estimations)", "1.9 million German women altogether were raped at the end of the war by Red Army soldiers."[51][52][53] About one-third of all German women in Berlin were raped by Soviet forces.[51] A substantial minority was raped multiple times.[53][54] In Berlin, contemporary hospital records indicate between 95,000 and 130,000 women were raped by Soviet troops.[53] About 10,000 of these women died, mostly by suicide.[51][53] Over 4.5 million Germans fled towards the West.[55] The Soviets initially had no rules against their troops "fraternising" with German women, but by 1947 they started to isolate their troops from the German population in an attempt to stop rape and robbery by the troops.[56] Not all Soviet soldiers participated in these activities.[57]
Foreign reports of Soviet brutality were denounced[by whom?] as false.[58] Rape, robbery, and murder were blamed on German bandits impersonating Soviet soldiers.[59] Some justified Soviet brutality towards German civilians based on previous brutality of German troops toward Russian civilians.[60] Until the reunification of Germany, East German histories virtually ignored the actions of Soviet troops, and Russian histories still tend to do so.[61] Reports of mass rapes by Soviet troops were often dismissed as anti-Communist propaganda or the normal byproduct of war.[51]
Rapes also occurred under other Allied forces in Europe, though the majority were committed by Soviet troops.[54] In a letter to the editor of Time published in September 1945, a United States Army sergeant wrote, "Our own Army and the British Army along with ours have done their share of looting and raping ... This offensive attitude among our troops is not at all general, but the percentage is large enough to have given our Army a pretty black name, and we too are considered an army of rapists."[62] Robert Lilly's analysis of military records led him to conclude about 14,000 rapes occurred in Britain, France, and Germany at the hands of US soldiers between 1942 and 1945.[63] Lilly assumed that only 5% of rapes by American soldiers were reported, making 17,000 GI rapes a possibility, while analysts estimate that 50% of (ordinary peacetime) rapes are reported.[64] Supporting Lilly's lower figure is the "crucial difference" that for World War II military rapes "it was the commanding officer, not the victim, who brought charges".[64] According to German historian Miriam Gebhardt, as many as 190,000 women were raped by U.S. soldiers in Germany.[65]
German soldiers left many war children behind in nations such as France and Denmark, which were occupied for an extended period. After the war, the children and their mothers often suffered recriminations. In Norway, the "Tyskerunger" (German-kids) suffered greatly.[66][67]
During the Italian campaign, the
In Japan
In the first few weeks of the American military occupation of Japan, rape and other violent crime was widespread in naval ports like Yokohama and Yokosuka but declined shortly afterward. There were 1,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa prefecture.[70] Historian Toshiyuki Tanaka relates that in Yokohama, the capital of the prefecture, there were 119 known rapes in September 1945.[71][page needed]
Historians Eiji Takemae and Robert Ricketts state that "When US paratroopers landed in Sapporo, an orgy of looting, sexual violence, and drunken brawling ensued. Gang rapes and other sex atrocities were not infrequent" and some of the rape victims committed suicide.[72]
General Robert L. Eichelberger, the commander of the U.S. Eighth Army, recorded that in the one instance when the Japanese formed a self-help vigilante guard to protect women from off-duty GIs, the Eighth Army ordered armoured vehicles in battle array into the streets and arrested the leaders, and the leaders received long prison terms.[72][73]
According to Takemae and Ricketts, members of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) were also involved in rapes:
A former prostitute recalled that as soon as Australian troops arrived in Kure in early 1946, they "dragged young women into their jeeps, took them to the mountain, and then raped them. I heard them screaming for help nearly every night". Such behavior was commonplace, but news of criminal activity by Occupation forces was quickly suppressed.[72]
Rape committed by U.S. soldiers occupying Okinawa was also a notable phenomenon. Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes:
Soon after the U.S. marines landed, all the women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. At the time, there were only women, children and old people in the village, as all the young men had been mobilized for the war. Soon after landing, the marines "mopped up" the entire village, but found no signs of Japanese forces. Taking advantage of the situation, they started "hunting for women" in broad daylight and those who were hiding in the village or nearby air raid shelters were dragged out one after another.[74]
According to Toshiyuki Tanaka, 76 cases of rape or rape-murder were reported during the first five years of the American occupation of Okinawa. However, he claims this is probably not the true figure, as most cases were unreported.[75]
Comfort women
During World War II the Japanese military established brothels filled with "comfort women", a euphemism for the 200,000 girls and women who were forced into sexual slavery for Japanese soldiers.[76][77] In Confucian nations like Korea and China, where premarital sex is considered shameful, the subject of the "comfort women" was ignored for decades after 1945 as the victims were considered pariahs.[78] Dutch comfort women brought a successful case before the Batavia Military Tribunal in 1948.[79]
Post-war tensions
Europe
The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate even before the war was over,[80] when Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill exchanged a heated correspondence over whether the Polish government-in-exile, backed by Roosevelt and Churchill, or the Provisional Government, backed by Stalin, should be recognised. Stalin won.[81]
A number of allied leaders felt that war between the United States and the Soviet Union was likely. On 19 May 1945, American Under-Secretary of State Joseph Grew went so far as to say that it was inevitable.[82][83]
On 5 March 1946, in his
Due to the rising tension in Europe and concerns over further Soviet expansion, American planners came up with a contingency plan code-named
In
The US sought to promote an economically strong and politically united Western Europe to counter the threat posed by the Soviet Union. This was done openly using tools such as the
The
Asia
In Asia, the surrender of Japanese forces was complicated by the split between East and West as well as by the movement toward national self-determination in European colonial territories.
India
Decisions to decolonize
China
As agreed to at the
After the end of the war, the
With the Communist victory in the civil war, the Soviet Union gave up its claim to military bases in China that were given to it by its Western Allies at the end of World War II.[citation needed]
While large scale hostilities largely ceased by 1950, intermittent clashes occurred between the two from 1950 to 1979. Taiwan unilaterally declared the civil war over in 1991, but no formal peace treaty or truce has been signed and the PRC continues to officially see Taiwan as a breakaway province that rightfully belongs to it.[citation needed]
The outbreak of the Korean War a few months after the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War and continued US support for the KMT were the main reasons that prevented the PRC from invading Taiwan.[citation needed]
Korea
At the Yalta Conference, the Allies agreed that an undivided post-war Korea would be placed under four-power multinational trusteeship. After Japan's surrender, this agreement was modified to a joint Soviet-American occupation of Korea.[95] The agreement was that Korea would be divided and occupied by the Soviets from the north and the Americans from the south.[96]
Korea, formerly
Malaya
Labour and civil unrest broke out in the
French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia)
Events during World War II in the colony of French Indochina (consisting of the modern-day states of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia) set the stage for the First Indochina War which in turn led to the Vietnam War.
During World War II, the Vichy French aligned colonial authorities cooperated with the Japanese invaders. The communist-controlled
The war ended in 1954 with French withdrawal and a partition of Vietnam that was intended to be temporary until elections could be held. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam held the north while South Vietnam formed into a separate republic in control of Ngo Dinh Diem who was backed in his refusal to hold elections by the US. The communist party of the south eventually organized the common front NLF to fight to unite south and north under the Democratic Republic of Vietnam and thus began the Vietnam War, which ended with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam conquering the South in 1975.
Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)
Japan invaded and occupied the Dutch East Indies during the war and replaced the colonial government with a new administration. Although the top positions were held by Japanese officers, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Indonesian nationalist leaders such as Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesia as independent. A four and a half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their rule in colony, using a significant portion of their Marshall Plan aid to this end.[103] The Dutch were aided by British forces for the first phase of the conflict until the United Kingdom withdrew. The British also initially used 35,000 Japanese Surrendered Personnel to support their military operations in Indonesia. Although Dutch forces re-occupied most of Indonesia, an Indonesian guerrilla campaign supported by the majority of Indonesians ensured, and ultimately international opinion favoured independence. In December 1949, the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty.[citation needed]
Covert operations and espionage
British covert operations in the Baltic States, which began in 1944 against the Nazis, escalated after the war. In
Vietnam and the Middle East would later damage the reputation gained by the US during its successes in Europe.[108]
The KGB believed that the Third World rather than Europe was the arena in which it could win the Cold War.[109] Moscow would in later years fuel an arms buildup in Africa. In later years, African countries used as proxies in the Cold War would often become "failed states" of their own.[108]
In 2014, The New York Times reported that "In the decades after World War II, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and other United States agencies employed at least a thousand Nazis as Cold War spies and informants and, as recently as the 1990s, concealed the government's ties to some still living in America, newly disclosed records and interviews show."[110] According to Timothy Naftali, "The CIA's central concern [in recruiting former Nazi collaborators] was not so much the extent of the criminal's guilt as the likelihood that the agent's criminal past could remain a secret."[111]: 365
Recruitment of former enemy scientists
When the divisions of postwar Europe began to emerge, the war crimes programmes and denazification policies of Britain and the United States were relaxed in favour of recruiting German scientists, especially nuclear and long-range rocket scientists.
In
The wartime activities of some Operation Paperclip scientists would later be investigated.
The Soviets began
The operation was commanded by NKVD deputy Colonel General Serov,[120] outside the control of the local Soviet Military Administration.[123] The major reason for the operation was the Soviet fear of being condemned for noncompliance with Allied Control Council agreements on the liquidation of German military installations.[124] Some Western observers thought Operation Osoaviakhim was a retaliation for the failure of the Socialist Unity Party in elections, though Osoaviakhim was clearly planned before that.[125]
Demise of the League of Nations and the founding of the United Nations
As a general consequence of the war and in an effort to maintain international peace,[126] the Allies formed the United Nations (UN), which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945.[127] The UN replaced the defunct League of Nations (LN) as an intergovernmental organization. The LN was formally dissolved on 20 April 1946 but had in practice ceased to function in 1939, being unable to stop the outbreak of World War II. The UN inherited some of the bodies of the LN, such as the International Labour Organization.
The UN adopted The
The five major Allied powers were given permanent membership in the
Unresolved conflicts
Japanese holdouts persisted on various islands in the Pacific Theatre until at least 1974. Although all hostilities are now resolved, a peace treaty has never been signed between Japan and Russia due to the Kuril Islands dispute.
Economic aftermath
By the end of the war, the European economy had collapsed with some 70% of its industrial infrastructure destroyed.[129] The property damage in the Soviet Union consisted of complete or partial destruction of 1,710 cities and towns, 70,000 villages/hamlets, and 31,850 industrial establishments.[130] The strength of the economic recovery following the war varied throughout the world, though in general, it was quite robust, particularly in the United States.
In Europe, West Germany, after having continued to decline economically during the first years of the Allied occupation, later experienced a remarkable recovery, and had by the end of the 1950s doubled production from its pre-war levels.[131] Italy came out of the war in poor economic condition,[132] but by the 1950s, the Italian economy was marked by stability and high growth.[133] France rebounded quickly and enjoyed rapid economic growth and modernisation under the Monnet Plan.[134] The UK, by contrast, was in a state of economic ruin after the war[135] and continued to experience relative economic decline for decades to follow.[136]
The Soviet Union also experienced a rapid increase in production in the immediate post-war era.
At the end of the war, the United States produced roughly half of the world's industrial output. The US, of course, had been spared industrial and civilian devastation. Further, much of its pre-war industry had been converted to wartime usage. As a result, with its industrial and civilian base in much better shape than most of the world, the US embarked on an economic expansion unseen in human history. US gross domestic product increased from $228 billion in 1945 to just under $1.7 trillion in 1975.[140][141]
Denazification
In 1951 several laws were passed, ending the denazification. As a result, many people with a former Nazi past ended up again in the political apparatus of West Germany. West German President
Unexploded ordnance
Unexploded ordnance continues to pose a danger in the present day. In 2017 fifty thousand people were evacuated from Hanover so World War II era bombs could be defused.[144] As of 2023, it is still thought that thousands of unexploded bombs remain from World War II.[145]
Environment
When World War II ended scientists did not have procedures for safe disposal of chemical arsenals. At the direction of the UK, US and Russia, chemical weapons were loaded onto ships by the metric ton and dumped into the sea. The exact locations of the dumping are not known due to poor record keeping, but it is estimated that 1 million metric tons of chemical weapons remain on the ocean floor where they are rusting and pose the risk of leaks. Sulfur mustard exposure has been reported in some parts of coastal Italy and sulfur mustard bombs have been found as far as Delaware, likely brought in with the shellfish cargo.[146]
See also
- Aftermath of the Holocaust
- Bretton Woods system
- Western Union
- Demobilization of United States armed forces after World War II
- Danube River Conference of 1948
- Operation Unthinkable
- Neo-fascism
- Post-fascism
- Aftermath of World War II in Bavaria
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Bibliography
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Further reading
- Black, Monica. A Demon-Haunted Land: Witches, Wonder Doctors, and the Ghosts of the Past in Post–WWII Germany (Metropolitan Books, 2020).
- Gatrell, Peter. The unsettling of Europe: the great migration, 1945 to the present (Penguin UK, 2019).
- Hilton, Laura J. "Who was 'worthy'? How empathy drove policy decisions about the uprooted in occupied Germany, 1945–1948". Holocaust and Genocide Studies 32.1 (2018): 8-28. online[dead link]
- Hoffmann, Steven A. "Japan: Foreign Occupation and Democratic Transition". in Establishing Democracies (Routledge, 2021) pp. 115–148.
- Iatrides, John O, ed. (1981). Greece in the 1940s: A Nation in Crisis. Hanover and London: University Press of New England.
- Jones, Howard (1989). A New Kind of War: America's Global Strategy and the Truman Doctrine in Greece. London: Oxford University Press.
- Kehoe, Thomas J., and Elizabeth M. Greenhalgh. "Bias in the Treatment of Non-Germans in the British and American Military Government Courts in Occupied Germany, 1945–46". Social Science History 44.4 (2020): 641-666.
- Konrád, Ota, Boris Barth, and Jaromír Mrňka. "Reshaping the Nation: An Introduction to the Collective Identities and Post-war Violence in Europe, 1944–1948". in Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48 (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022) pp. 1–16.
- Laar, Mart (1992). War in the Woods: Estonia's Struggle for Survival, 1944-1956. Translated by Ets, Tiina. Foreword by Parming, Tönu. Howells House. ISBN 0-929590-08-2.
- Lowe, Keith (2013). Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II. Picador. ISBN 978-1250033567.
- Lundtofte, Henrik. "Purges, Patriotism, and Political Violence: The Danish Case 1944–1945". in Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48 (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022) pp. 129–164.
- McClellan, Dorothy. S., and Knez, Nikola. "Post-World War II Forced Repatriations to Yugoslavia: Genocide's Legacy for Democratic Nation Building". International Journal of Social Sciences 7.2 (2018): 62-91.
- Mayers, David. America and the postwar world: Remaking international society, 1945-1956 (Routledge, 2018).
- Naimark, Norman M. "Violence in the European Interregnum, 1944–1947". in Collective Identities and Post-War Violence in Europe, 1944–48 (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2022) pp. 17–33.
- Piketty, Guillaume. "From the Capitoline Hill to the Tarpeian Rock? Free French coming out of war". European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire 25.2 (2018): 354-373. Archived 2022-04-21 at the Wayback Machine.
- Pritchard, Gareth. "East-Central Europe: From Nazi rule to communism, 1943–1948". in The Routledge History of the Second World War (Routledge, 2021) pp. 671–686.
- Strupp, Christoph. "The Port of Hamburg in the 1940s and 1950s: Physical Reconstruction and Political Restructuring in the Aftermath of World War II". Journal of Urban History 47.2 (2021): 354-372.
- Szulc, Tad (1990). Then and Now: How the World Has Changed since W.W. II. New York: W. Morrow & Co. 515 p. ISBN 0-688-07558-4.
- Tippner, Anja. "Postcatastrophic entanglement? Contemporary Czech writers remember the holocaust and post-war ethnic cleansing". Memory Studies 14.1 (2021): 80-94.
- Ward, Robert E., and Yoshikazu Sakamoto, eds. Democratizing Japan: The Allied Occupation (University of Hawaii Press, 2019).
External links
- Media related to Aftermath of World War II at Wikimedia Commons