Agriculture in California

The Central Valley of California is one of the world's most productive agricultural regions.^[177] More than 230 crops are grown there.^[177] On less than one percent of the total farmland in the United States, the Central Valley produces eight percent of the nation's agricultural output by value: US$43.5 billion in 2013.^[178] The top four counties in agricultural sales (2007 data) in the U.S. are in California's Central Valley: Fresno ($3.731 billion), Tulare ($3.335 billion), Kern ($3.204 billion), and Merced ($2.330 billion).^[179][180]

Its agricultural productivity relies on irrigation both from surface water diversions and from groundwater pumping (wells). About one-sixth of the irrigated land in the U.S. is in the Central Valley.^[181] Central Valley groundwater pollution is an ongoing environmental issue in the area.

There are 6,000 almond growers who produced more than 1.8 million tonnes in 2013, about 60 percent of the world's supply.^[182][183]

Parts of the Valley are

The Salinas Valley, located within

California has more certified organic farms than any other state. In 2016, more than a million acres in the state were certified organic.^[187] CA grows 90% or more of the U.S. production of Organic almonds, artichokes, avocados, broccoli, cauliflower, celery, dates, figs, grapes, strawberries, lemons, lettuce, plums, and walnuts.^[188]

There are two primary laws that regulate organic production: at a federal level, the Organic Foods Production Act of 1990 and at a state level, the California Organic Food and Farming Act of 2016. Both laws lay out standards for production, processing, handling and retailing that must be followed in order to label a product as "organic". The USDA, California Organic Products Advisory Committee, and the California County Agricultural Commissioners monitor and ensure these standards are followed by administering enforcement actions for any violations.^[189]

Any agricultural operation selling more than $5,000 in products per year is required to acquire organic certification, if they seek to sell their products under the organic label. Multiple organizations are accredited to certify operations organic.^[190]

Environmental and natural resources

Water use

The largest overall water users in California are the environment, agriculture and urban/ municipal uses.^[2] In an average year, about 40% of California's water consumption, or approximately 34.1 million acre-foot (42,100 million cubic metres), is used for agricultural purposes. However, the exact proportion of total water usage for agriculture varies widely between 'wet' and 'dry' years. In wet years, agriculture is responsible for closer to 30% of total water consumption and in dry years closer to 60%.^[2] Water for agriculture is used to irrigate more than 9 million acres (36,000 square kilometres) of cropland annually.^[191]

Water for agriculture comes from two primary sources: surface water and groundwater. Surface waters include natural bodies of water along with a network of human-built reservoirs with aqueducts and canals that carry water from the source to the agricultural users.^[191] Groundwater aquifers range in depth and accessibility across the state, and historically have been used to supplement surface water supplies in dry years.^[192]

California is one of the top five states in water use for livestock. Water withdrawals for livestock use in California were 101–250 million US gallons (380,000,000–950,000,000 L)/day in 2010.^[193]

Saudi Arabian companies and individuals have bought land here and in

Agricultural impacts on water quality concentrate around concerns of the following contaminants: nutrients, pesticides, salts, pollutants, sediment, pathogens, and heavy metals.[196] These contaminants enter water bodies through above-ground surface runoff of rainwater or excess irrigation water, or percolating through the soil and leaching into groundwater. Water quality concerns affect most regions of the state and tend to be exacerbated during periods of drought.^[197]

At present, all irrigated agricultural operations in the State are required to participate in the Irrigated Lands Regulatory Program.^[198] The regulatory program began after the California Legislature passed Senate Bill 390 (SB390) in 1990, that eliminated a blanket waiver for agricultural operations to discharge wastewater without any specific environmental standards.^[199]

Water supply

A major source for Southern California's water supply, both agricultural and urban, is the Colorado River from which an aqueduct has been built to transport the water from the river to Riverside.^[200] Colorado River irrigation is essential for agriculture to the Salton Sea Basin, which supports key agriculturally productive areas such as the Imperial Valley.^[201] Another aspect of the agricultural water supply in California is the transfer of water that takes place from northern to southern California. In northern California, the Shasta Dam contains the flow of the Sacramento River, preserving water for California's use, and pumping stations in the California Delta extract water transferring that water across the San Joaquin Valley and southward.^[202] A key component to the distribution of the water supply are the irrigation districts and water agencies who are responsible for delegating water as to meet the demand of those within the area as well as clarify and legal arbitration as to water rights.^[203]

The agency tasked with overseeing the state's water supply and any projects associated with the upkeep of the supply is the California Department of Water Resources (CDWR).^[204] As part of the 2019-2020 California Spending Plan, the CDWR received $2.336 billion with $833 million going towards projects overseen by the California Natural Resources Agency and $1.503 billion going towards the control board supervised by the California Environmental Protection Agency.^[205] One of the CDWR's major projects is the State Water Project (SWP) which distributes 34% of the water that flows through its various channels.^[206] The SWP also is one of the largest suppliers of hydroelectric power in the state.^[206]

The invasive quagga- and zebra-​mussels reached the state in about 2006 and threaten the already limited supply of farm water.^[207] The mussels have continued to spread and present an ever-expanding threat to pipelines.^[208]

Air pollution

In 2014, California agriculture soils contributed to 51% of statewide greenhouse gas emissions.^[10] California's Mediterranean climate supports irrigation events such as nitrification which encourage nitrous oxide production. Mean nitrous oxide emissions (the biggest contributor to ozone depletion of all the major agricultural greenhouse gases) have been reported to be "four times higher in irrigated compared to rain-fed systems".^[10] Another factor which frequently contributes to increased ${\displaystyle {\ce {N2O}}}$ emissions are warm soil temperatures (a common occurrence in California).^[10]

History

Pre-1850

Peake &

Since initial contact between Europeans and Indigenous American peoples, the topic of Native American agriculture has been debated. While agriculture in pre-contact California certainly did not fit into the Western definition of agriculture, the keen stewardship of California's natural ecosystem by Indigenous Californians to achieve the best possible output of resources is "agricultural," with California's ecosystems acting as a large, unbounded agricultural site.^[210][211] Because of this difference in ideology, agricultural practices in pre-contact California often took a different form than those of Europe.

Some California hunter-gatherer tribes, including the

Native Californians also developed strategies when it came to competing with animals for resources. The

In the late 1700s, Franciscan missionaries established Spanish missions in California. Like earlier Spanish missions established in Baja California, these missions were surrounded by agricultural land, growing crops from Europe and the Americas, and raising animals originating from Europe. Indigenous workers from Baja California made up a large part of the initial labor force on California missions.^[217] In the early 1800s, this flow of laborers from Baja California had largely stopped, and the missions relied on converts from local tribes. By 1806, over 20,000 Mission Indians were "attached" to the California missions. As missions were expected to become largely self-sufficient, farming was a critically important Mission industry. George Vancouver visited Mission San Buenaventura in 1793 and noted the wide variety of crops grown: apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, peaches, pomegranates, plantain, banana, coconut, sugar cane, indigo, various herbs, and prickly pear.^[218] Livestock was raised for meat, wool, leather, and tallow, and for cultivating the land. In 1832, at the height of their prosperity, the missions collectively owned over 150,000 cattle and over 120,000 sheep. They also raised horses, goats, and pigs.^[219]

While the Spanish were the most successful farmers active in California in the early 1800s, they were not the only ones. In 1812, the Russians established Fort Ross in what is now Sonoma County, California, and intended the fort in part as an agricultural supply point for other Russian activity on the west coast. Despite Russian plans for the colony, agriculture at Fort Ross had low yields, significantly lower than the California missions. Inefficient farming methods, labour shortages, coastal fog, and rodents all contributed to limit agriculture at the fort.^[220]

The Spanish (1784–1810) and Mexican (1819–1846) governments made a large number of land grants to private individuals from 1785 to 1846. These

1850–1900

In 1848, before the Gold Rush, the population of CA was approximately 15,000, not counting Native Americans. By 1852, there were over 250,000 people in the state.^[221] and by 1870, 560,000 people.^[222] This rapid population growth drove an increase in importation of agricultural products, and, within a few years, a massive growth in in-state agriculture. In the first years of the gold rush, the state relied on agricultural imports arriving by ship, from Australia, Chile, and Hawaii. During these years, there was rapid growth in vegetable farming for local markets. This was followed by an expansion of grain farming.^[221] A shift in the economic dominance of grain farming over cattle raising was marked by the passage of the California "No-Fence Law" of 1874. This repealed the Trespass Act of 1850, which had required farmers to protect their planted fields from free-ranging cattle. The repeal of the Trespass Act required that ranchers fence stock in, rather than farmers fencing cattle out. The ranchers were faced with either the high expense of fencing large grazing tracts or selling their cattle at ruinous prices.^[223][224] By the 1890s, California was second in US wheat production, producing over one million tons of wheat per year,^[221] but monocrop wheat farming had depleted the soil in some areas resulting in reduced crops.^[225]

Irrigation was almost nonexistent in California in 1850, but by 1899, 12 percent of the state's improved farmland was irrigated.^[225]

Luther Burbank moved to Santa Rosa, California in 1875, and developed numerous commercially successful varieties of plants over the next 50 years.

1900–1950

The 1902 Newlands Reclamation Act funded irrigation projects on arid lands in 20 states including California.

In 1905, the California legislature passed the University Farm Bill, which called for the establishment of a farm school for the University of California (at the time,

In 1919, the California Department of Food and Agriculture was established. The department covers state food safety, state protection from invasive species, and promoting the state's agricultural industry.

The Dust Bowl of the 1930s drove many people from the American prairie, and a significant number of these economic migrants relocated to California. Poor migrants from Oklahoma and nearby states were sometimes referred to as Okies, generally a pejorative term. In 1933, the state saw a number of agricultural labor strikes, with the largest actions against cotton growers. Cherry, grape, peach, pear, sugar beet, and tomato workers were also involved.

In 1942, the United States began the

1950–2000

In 1965, the Williamson Act became law, providing property tax relief to owners of California farmland and open-space land in exchange for agreement that the land will not be developed.

The 1960s and 1970s saw major

In the 2000s and 2010s, Californians voted for propositions which established new protections for farm animals. 2008 California Proposition 2 and 2018 California Proposition 12 both established minimum requirements for farming egg-laying hens, breeding pigs, and calves raised for veal. Few veal and pig factory farm operations exist in California, so these propositions mostly affect farmers who raise California's 15 million egg-laying hens.^[230]

Agricultural crime

California nut crimes have involved the theft of millions of dollars of nuts (almonds, pistachios, cashews and pecans) in multiple incidents since 2013.^[231][232]

Water theft for agriculture has been an issue in times of drought, with the State assessing fines up to $1.5 million.^[233][234]

Pests

Despite its expansive geography, some pests are so severe, so

The

The

In 1997 the Blue-Green Sharpshooter (BGSS,

.

The European Grapevine Moth (

eradication.^[254] See also § Grapes

.

Carpenter Worm (

Cotinis texana syn. C. mutabilis),^[256]

[255] Fig mite (Aceria fici),^[255] Fig scale (Lepiosaphes conchiformis),^[255] and Navel orangeworm^{[91][92][255]} are among the most important pests of fig here. (See § Figs and § Navel orangeworm.)

Japanese Beetle (

wide host range of the grubs but also due to the grubs' and adults' destructiveness.^[257]

The Plum Bud Gall Mite (

Sonoma, and north into Western Oregon.^[140] So far PBGM is known to be a problem on plum and pluot (see § Plums) and not on other stonefruits, especially not almond, even almonds nearby to infested orchards.^[140]

The Silverleaf Whitefly (SLW,

Bemisia tabaci strain B) was first noticed here in the fall of 1991.^[259] First appearing in the valleys of the state's deserts, it has caused about $500 million in agricultural losses here through 2019.^[259] Further economic effects include $774 million in lost sales, $112.5 million in lost personal income, and the loss of 12,540 jobs.^[259] SLW is intractable in the southern deserts, especially in Imperial, Palo Verde, Coachella, and the southern part of San Joaquin vallies.^[259] In the SJV this is worst on § Cotton.^[259] Himler et al., 2011 find the Rickettsia sp. nr. bellii symbiont rapidly invaded the population of California, Arizona and New Mexico.^[260]

Aleyrodes spiraeoides is a native whitefly.^[261] Hosts include strawberry.^[261]

invaded the Central Coast and Southern areas.^[261] Hosts include strawberry.^[261]

Trialeurodes packardi is a pest of strawberry whiteflies but less commonly than A. spiraeoides.^[261]

A Painted Bug,

Big Island of Hawaii.^[23] The most valuable crop threatened is § Broccoli.^[23] Much of the research on this pest in this part of the world has been performed by the Palumbo group at the University of Arizona.^[23]

Lygus bugs are common pests here including the Western Tarnished Plant Bug (WTPB, Lygus hesperus).^[262] A vacuum collector is often used for WTPB in strawberry, called the BugVac.^[263] (See also § Strawberry.)

The Spotted Wing Drosophila (

biocontrol here.^[268]

Other Drosophila species include

vector sour rot and bunch rot pathogens between grape bunches.^[266] Hosts include grape^[266] and strawberry.^[272]

Turelli et al., 1991 uses a

genetically modified Wolbachia to suppress D. simulans to suppress its vectored diseases here.^[273] (This has become a widely known example of Wolbachia use, and has informed European decision making on vector control.)^[273]

The Salt Marsh Caterpillar (

biocontrols.^[274][275] SMC can be significant in strawberry, see § Strawberries.^[274][275]

The Peach Fruit Fly (

eradication efforts using methyl eugenol lures are underway.^[184][185] Especially an immediate concern are California's $2.10b citrus-, $875m stonefruit-, and $1.19b tomato industries.^[184][185] (See also § Chowchilla, § Citrus, § Stonefruit, and § Tomatoes

.)

The Green Fruit Beetle (Figeater Beetle,

Cotinis mutabilis) is occasionally a pest of ripened fruit, including apricot, caneberry, fig, grape, peach, and plum.^[278] The larvae/grubs are harmless however.^[278]

For Beet Armyworms (BAW,

Spodoptera exigua) in strawberry^[279] and lettuce^[110] see § Pests of strawberry and § Lettuce. S. exigua populations here have long standing carbamate resistance.^[280]

First identified here in 1992 in

structural pest.^[285]

Cucumber Beetles (Diabrotica balteata, Acalymma vittatum, D. undecimpunctata) are common pests here.^[13] UC IPM provides recommended practices for apricot,^[13] see also § Apricot.

Phylloxera of Grape (

AxR1 associated and those associated with all others.^[287]

The detection of the Red Palm Weevil (

APHIS declared the eradication successful.^[89] Its relative the South American palm weevil (R. palmarum) has killed increasing numbers of Canary Island date palms (Phoenix canariensis) and is expected to become a significant pest of dates in the future.^[89] For a common host see § Date

.

Several Culex mosquitoes are common here including C. quinquefasciatus, C. stigmatosoma, and C. tarsalis.^[175] Insecticides are often used in their control^[288] and as a result some species have undergone resistance evolution.^[288] Mouches et al., 1986 finds one population achieved this via gene amplification of an esterase.^[288][289] See also § Avian malaria.

The southern part of the state suffers from the Walnut Aphid (Spotted Alfalfa Aphid,

parathion resistance had rapidly developed there.^[290]

The common House Fly (

super-kdr are also present.^[291] (This profile is also found in New Mexican, Floridian, North Carolinian, New York, and Montanan populations.)^[291]

The Mexfly (Mexican fruit fly,

eradicate them every time, both here and in Texas.^[292]

^: 16

The Medfly (Mediterranean fruit fly,

invasion biology efforts and studies on the Medfly around the world.^[294]

Production of strawberries in California

.

Cotton Aphids (

resistance and may also contaminate their honeydew.^[298] Insecticide contaminated honeydew may harm beneficial insects.^[298] See also § Cotton

.

The Avocado Thrips (

invasive pests here.^[18] For a host see § Avocado

.

The Tobacco Budworm (

metabolic resistance to permethrin in Imperial Valley populations.^[58]: 80 See also § Cotton and Imperial Valley

.

Western Flower Thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) is a major pest of horticulturals around the world.^[299] Here, it is especially known as a pest of peach^[296] and strawberry.^[300][299] (See also § Cultivars of strawberry, § Arthropods in peach, § Pests of strawberry.)

The Diamondback Moth (

Btk resistance in the state's DM population.^[301]

The Chokecherry Finger Gall Mite (Eriophyes emarginatae) produces leaf galls on several Prunus here.^[155]: 178 See also § Prunus.

Several

exotic pest here.^[303] Gloria-Soria et al., 2016 finds a significant amount of shared genetics between the population of the southern part of the state and New Mexico, Arizona, and Mexico.^[303]

San Diego County in 1932, and proved so successful as feed and food that descendants were sold around the state.^[304] They escaped and now are a widespread nuisance.^[304]

surveillance costs can be easily reduced.^[305] Costs are reduced by 50% by targeting surveillance resources based on the difference in surveillance cost by location, and by the difference in establishment risk by location.^[305][306]

California is known to be free of

Bactrocera tau (Walker).^[307] Very few jurisdictions – including this state, Florida, and New Zealand – are at such risk that a system of Steiner traps using methyl eugenol is employed to provide early warning of an invasion.^[307] Crops especially at risk include tomato, bell pepper, watermelon, other melons, cucumber and pumpkin.^[307] (See also § Tomato, § Melon and Cucumber § Notes

.)

California red scale (

invasive pest here.^[308] It competitively displaced a prior invader Yellow scale (A. citrina).^[308] Debach et al., 1978 finds that A. citrina is now extinct in this state due to the invasion of A. aurantii.^[308]

The Black Vine Weevil (

alternate host.^[309]

Otiorhynchus cribricollis (Cribrate weevil) is common in the San Joaquin Valley.^[310] It is sometimes a problem in strawberry in the area.^[310]

Helicoverpa zea (syn. Heliothis zea) is common in several parts of the state including all strawberry growing areas.^[311] H. zea is especially troublesome in southern coastal California.^[311]

Cyclamen Mites occur natively here.^[312] Hosts include strawberry.^[312]

introduced pest restricted to high moisture soil.^[313] Hosts include strawberry.^[313]

Some slugs (

introduced pests from Europe.^[314] Hosts include strawberry.^[314]

European Earwigs are most destructive from April to July here.^[315] Hosts include strawberry.^[315]

Eotetranychus lewisi is found in coastal areas including Oxnard and Salinas.^[316] Hosts include strawberry.^[316]

Agrotis ipsilon is the most common cutworm here.^[317] Hosts include strawberry.^[317]

Pandemis pyrusana is present and eats the leaves of several crops.^[241] Hosts include strawberry.^[241]

Clepsis peritana is an ecologically important saprovore.^[241] Later in the season it is a pest of strawberry.^[241]

Myzus persicae is present.^[318] Hosts include strawberry.^[318]

Macrosiphum euphorbiae is much larger than other aphids in California.^[318] Populations here have two forms, a green and a red.^[318] Hosts include strawberry.^[318]

Aedes albopictus is a pest of livestock concern.^[319] Modified Wolbachia have been released to control this species here.^[319]

Pectinophora gossypiella

El-Lissy

, eradication ceremony

The Pink Bollworm (

Osama El-Lissy and his collaborators.^{[citation needed}

]

Wang et al., 2010[321] and 2011^[322] find a Pectinophora gossypiella PiggyBac like element 1 (PgPLE1) variant and insertion site of the Imperial Valley population not found elsewhere in the world. See also § Cotton.

Weeds

Rejmanek & Pitcairn 2002 overview 53

weed eradication campaigns in the state, and find that any infestation smaller than 2.5 acres (1.0 ha) was usually successfully eradicated, while anything which had already reached 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) was essentially impossible to do.^[323]

^: 137

Yellow Sweetclover (

Linnaeus), Shepherd's Purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris Linnaeus Medikus), Crabgrass (various Digitaria spp.), Spotted Spurge (Euphorbia maculata Linnaeus Small), and Yellow Nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) are common weeds here, including in strawberry and parsley.^[120] (See § Strawberries, and § Parsley

.)

Marestail (Horseweed,

glyphosate-resistant Hairy Fleabane.^[325] (See also § Glyphosate

.)

In the

fiddleneck (Boraginaceae), warm-season grass weeds, warm-season Cyperaceae, amaranths (Amaranthaceae), morning glory (Convolvulaceae), and caltrop (Tribulus terrestris, Zygophyllaceae).^[326] Achmon et al., 2018 dramatically lowered seed bank viability, biomass, and density of all these weeds, and improved tomato yield using biosolarization using tomato and grape crop waste.^[326]

Cape-ivy (

Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa and Swaziland.^[327] It was first observed here in 1892 and has since spread to every coast of the state, and into one coastal county of Oregon.^[327] Two organisms have been found in its native range which could be introduced here as controls, see § Digitivalva delaireae and § Cercospora delaireae.^[327]

Sea Beet (

beet.^[328] Wild beet is only significant in small grains in Imperial, where dicamba and 2,4-D are necessary.^[330] See also § Small grains

.

Palmer Amaranth (

multiresistance in the world, and become one of the most notorious crop weeds in the world.^[331] In California it is found in all but the northernmost counties.^[332]

California wild radish (radish (

Raphanus sativus) × Jointed charlock (R. raphanistrum))^[333] has replaced all of its ancestral populations in the state.^[329]

Di Tomaso and Healy 2007 find

seedbank reduction.^[5]

Pathogens

Xylella fastidiosa

X. fastidiosa was first discovered here by Newton B. Pierce (1856–1916) in 1892.^[334][335] It has ever since remained a constant pathogen of many crops here,^[336] including grape, almond, citrus, and oleander.^[114]

Pierce's Disease

For the plant host of Pierce's Disease, see § Grapes.

History of PD

When European grapes were introduced to this area –

state Department of Agriculture.^[334][339]

Whatever the time of arrival in California and in North America, the current PD-causing

divergence – in the mid-1900s.^[340] This is likely due to massive expansion – or even introduction – of the current Xff strains, replacing the pre-existing strains across the state as grape acreage expanded in the 1970s.^[340]

PD was assumed to be

isolation and identification of the bacterium is variously credited either to two groups simultaneously in 1973, Goheen et al., 1973 and Hopkins & Mollenhauer 1973,^[334] or only to Davis, Purcell, and Thomson 1978.^[339]

In 1997 the Blue-Green Sharpshooter (the primary PD

vector) arrived here and the two have combined badly ever since.^[252] (See § Blue-Green Sharpshooter.) Only two years later, in 1999 together they inflicted over US$6 million in Southern California alone.^[252]

The Glassy-winged sharpshooter (GWSS) is an

vector of PD.^[247]

PD today

The CDFA's Pierce's Disease Control Program coordinates response and research in the state.[341]

Alston et al., 2013 estimates that PD cost the state $92m in 2013^[153] and over Tumber et al., 2014 estimates $104m annually in 2014.^[252] Burbank estimates the cost to be $100m annually by 2022.^[342]

GWSS remains a common vector of PD and as such is a severe drag on the entire continent's

Napa- and Sonoma- Valleys and other such costal AVAs PD mostly occurs in hotspots adjascent to small water flows.^[253] These areas are defined by small streams and ornamental irrigation.^[253] These are favorable habitat for the BGSS.^[253] Lin et al., 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating between the state's various strains infecting grape and other crops^[114] and Lin et al., 2013 for grape-infecting strains here and in Texas.^[334]

The BGSS is known to thrive in higher temperatures and PD epidemics are more severe in hotter years, and there is evidence that

global warming is increasing BGSS transmission of PD here.^[343] Larger data sets are needed for stronger confirmation.^[343]

There are two major divisions here, a lineage from

Temecula and the north.^[340] Within the northern areas there is lower gene flow, probably due to the Mayacamas Mountains.^[340]

Zhang et al., 2011 compares a PD strain to

pathogenicity factors.^[344]

Vanhove et al., 2020 elucidates the current genetic situation of PD strains here, including

their evolution.^[345]

Xf in stonefruit

Xf is also significant in stonefruit here, causing

genome sequence for common almond-infecting strains here.^[334] Lin et al., 2005 provides SSRs for differentiating strains from almond from various other strains.^[114] While almond and plum develop leaf scorch (see also § Plums), Ledbetter & Rogers 2009 find that peach does not.^[334]

Besides Pierce's Disease, the glassy-winged sharpshooter also vectors Xf among stonefruit and so its arrival threatens the world's almond supply (see § Glassy-winged sharpshooter and § Stonefruit).^[247]

Xf of citrus

Lin et al., 2005 provides

Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC) strains from almond, oleander, and PD strains.^[114]

Xf of oleander

Grebus et al., 1996 discovered the

Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) which distinguish California's OBLS strains from almond, citrus, and PD strains.^[114] See also § Xylella fastidiosa subsp. sandyi

.

Other Xf infections

Xf has many other hosts.

Chitalpa tashkentensis is a common landscaping plant here and elsewhere in the southwest that is also a host.^[334] Randall et al., 2009 propose the subspecies tashke for these strains but it remains unclear whether this is a distinct subspecies and whether it endures in the overall evolutionary course of Xf strains.^[334] Hernandez-Martinez et al., 2007 find the subspecies sandyi causes disease of Oleander, Jacaranda spp., daylily, and magnolia.^[334]

Raju 1983 finds Xf without symptoms on wild

vector), Helochara delta, Pagaronia tredecimpunctata, and Philaenus spumarius.^[334] Purcell & Saunders 1999 find infections in plants common to riparian zones here often are not motile in the host and spontaneously improve.^[334]

Botrytis cinerea

Various strains of gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) are a constant presence in the state's horticulture, especially afflicting strawberry^[346] and grape.^[347] (See § Strawberries and § Grapes.)

Fungicides are used multiple times per seasons and as a result

organic.^[346] This shows that evolution is driven by usage in this crop.^[346]

resistance to fluxapyroxad).^[346] The analysis of Cosseboom et al., 2019 explains 93.8% of resistance by already-known alleles discovered by Banno et al., 2008, Ma et al., 2007, Grabke et al., 2013, Kretschmer et al., 2009, Dowling et al., 2017, Fernández-Ortuño et al., 2012, Amiri et al., 2014, and Yin et al., 2011, so very little is due to experimental error, unknown physiological effects, or undiscovered alleles.^[346] (See § Isofetamid, § Fluopyram, and § Boscalid

.)

Organic strawberry ranches experience very active genetic transfer with conventional strawberry and as a result they have high proportions of resistance.[346] Cosseboom et al., 2019 finds that conventional fields undergo within-season resistance evolution, while organic does not, demonstrating that they are indeed not using the fungicides they claim to not use, and that genetic transfer is not so rapid as to change the situation in a field that quickly.^[346]

Ma & Michailides 2005 developed a

microsatellite primed PCR (MP-PCR) for genetic diversity in this fungus, especially for populations in this state.^[349] Strawberry Botrytis leaf spot was first discovered in 2018 in Santa Maria and reported by Mansouripour & Holmes 2020.^[350] Bc was not previously known to produce a leaf spot phenotype in strawberry.^[350]

In table grape there is a limit of 0.5% – table grapes can only be shipped if an allotment contains 0.5% or less of Bc-infected berries.[347] For one treatment option for grape, see § Ozone.^[347]

Shao et al., 2021 find

azoxystrobin resistance is very common in this population.^[351] They find it is much more common than in China where azoxystrobin is almost unknown.^[351]

B. cinerea is a common cause of

postharvest losses in this industry.^[352] Due to the need for long shelf life in the California industry – because target markets include the whole continent – and the low moisture growing environments, Petrasch et al., 2021 find genomic selection for strawberry resistance is highly successful.^[352] In other environments and markets however this is not expected to be as simple.^[352]

Most B. cinerea inoculum is introduced via aeroplankton.^[353] Significant protection against this is afforded by polytunnels.^[353] Daugovish & Larson 2009 find 84%–90% greater yield and 62%–140% greater marketable yield resulting in $14,000–$18,500 per hectare ($5,700–$7,500/acre) greater revenue due to polytunnels.^[353]

Though gray mold elsewhere may be caused by both B. cinerea and B. pseudocinerea in California B. pseudocinerea is unknown on strawberry.^[354] However it is found on blueberry in the San Joaquin Valley.^[354]

Other pathogens of grape

Napa County cost over $69,500 per hectare ($28,100/acre) across the likely 25-year lifetime of a vineyard, far higher than the $2,200 per hectare ($890/acre) estimated for eastern Washington.^[153]

Al Rwahnih et al., 2013 discovered

Grapevine Red Blotch-associated Virus (GRBaV) here, a DNA virus of this crop.^[355][356] This is one of the few discoveries of a DNA virus of this crop.^[356]

Leafroll Disease (grapevine leafroll-associated virus 3) is also economically significant.^[153]

The seriousness of Powdery Mildew (

fenarimol resistances.^{[128][360][359]}

Phomopsis dieback (caused by

endemic to California.^[356]

Fusarium spp.

species which are ubiquitous around the world

, including here.

Fusarium Wilt of Strawberry (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. fragariae) had only been seen once before, in

somatic compatibility groups.^[364] The vast majority fell into what they term SCG1, with a few of SCG2 and SCG3.^[364] SCG2 is always a false negative with this test which may indicate the entire group lacks the sequence in question.^[364] Although this proves to be a good test, a universally valid test may require finding a sequence specifically pertinent to virulence on the host and not other, incidental sequences.^[364] For genetic resistance see § Diseases of strawberry

.

In early 2012 a previously unknown

LA County.^[17] (See § Avocados above.) As all Euwallacea in both their native and invasive ranges, this insect prefers to infest hosts in this area in locations which are stressful due to their unnaturalness, such as urban ornamental plantings and orchards.^[17]

Fusarium Wilt of Lettuce (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lactucum) is common in the state.^[365]

pathogenic on Gossypium barbadense than on G. hirsutum.^[369]

Alternaria spp.

Various

azoxystrobin-resistant- isolates.^[138]

applied in Kings, no resistance is known there.^[370] (See § Boscalid

.)

Black Heart is a common pomegranate disease worldwide. Out of the group of causative species, here Luo et al., 2017 find it is caused by A. alternata and A. arborescens.^{[38]: 192 [372]} Michailides et al., 2008 finds the 'Wonderful' cultivar can suffer at a rate of 10% or more here.^{[38]: 192 [373]: S105} (See also § Pomegranates.)

Alternaria Rot of Fig is common here. It is caused by various species of this genus and relatives including:

Epicoccum purpurascens causes Alternaria of breba only.^[374] (The first, "breba" crop is not eaten but must be removed because it harbors inoculum of all of these microbes for the second, real crop.)^[374] See also § Fig

.

Candidatus Phytoplasma

The Peach Yellow Leaf Roll phytoplasma (

Almond Brown Line and Decline.^[375]

Other pathogens

Strawberry crown rot, a common disease here.^[376]

The Foliar Nematode (

Longidorus elongatus), Foliar (Aphelenchoides ritzemabosi and A. besseyi), and other Root Knot (Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica) nematodes.^[377]

soilborne pathogen^[380] – is a common cause.^[379] Natamycin is often used in strawberry.^[379] (See § Natamycin and § Strawberries.) Adaskaveg & Hartin 1997 identify the C. acutatum strains most frequently responsible in peach and almond.^[379] (See § Almonds and § Peaches

.)

fungicide resistance in these microorganisms.^[138] (See § Stonefruit and § Benzimidazole

.)

tebuconazole-resistant- isolates.^[138]

Figs commonly suffer from Fig Smut here.

A. japonicus, A. carbonarius, A. flavus and A. parasiticus, Eurotium spp., A. tamarii, A. terreus, A. wentii, A. alliaceus, A. melleus, A. ochraceus, Emericella spp., A. carneus, A. fumigatus, A. sclerotiorum, and A. sydowii.^[374]

Olives here suffer from a wide range of

Sevillano.^[117] Moral et al., 2010 finds N. mediterraneum commonly causes a branch blight on several cultivars and D. seriata causes a branch canker.^[117] More specific controls than currently available are needed for N. mediterraneum in highly susceptible cultivars, and early harvest may be the only successful treatment for D. seriata.^[117] See § Olives

.

hosts, in Herman 1951, Herman et al., 1954, and Reeves et al., 1954-II.^[175] Zoologix is based in the state and is a major provider of testing services here and for the entire country, including for avian malaria.^[176] See § Fowl for hosts and § Culex

for vectors.

Stripe Rust (

Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici, Pst) is believed to have been a continuous presence in the state since at least the 1770s because newspapers reported it at the time on wheat and wild grasses, and because stripe is more common today than leaf or stem rust.^[19]: 3 Barley, wheat, and various grasses are hosts here.^[19]: 9 (See § Barley and § Wheat.) Maccaferri et al. 2015 surveys the world's wheat and finds the Davis Pst populations are unusually heterogenous.^[381] That makes the Davis environment a useful experimental location for differentiating wheat genetic resistance.^[381]

Stromatinia cepivora (garlic white rot) was identified in the San Francisco area in the 1930s and Gilroy in the 1940s.^[382] It continues to be a problem for garlic growers in the state.^[383]

Leaf Spot of Caneberry (

Copper and lime sulfur work to some degree.^[25]

This should be distinguished from Leaf Spot of Raspberry (

Sphaerulina rubi, anamorph Cylindrosporium rubi).^[25] Although Leaf Spot of Raspberry is found here it is not common in California.^[25] (See § Raspberry

.)

Verticillium Wilts (

growth promoter effect in this crop.^[386]: 180 (See § Chloropicrin, § 1,3-dichloropropene, § Metam sodium, § Metam potassium

.)

Strawberry Crinkle Virus (SCV,

mechanical transmission.^[387][388]

Frequent use has produced

isolates by Miller & Schroth 1972.^[129] This disease is a problem of pomes, including pear.^[390] See § Streptomycin and § Pear

.

evolved strong resistance here.^[391] Palmer & Holmes 2021 find resistance to the majority of the most commonly applied ingredients in the Oxnard population.^[391]

Armillaria Root Rot of peach is primarily caused by

A. solidipes here.^[392] A. gallica and A. mexicana are not thought to be common here, but are common in Mexico.^[392] (See § Peach

.)

Tomato infectious chlorosis virus afflicts tomato here.^[393]: 180 See also § Tomato.

16SrIII-A is a phytoplasma of apricot here.^[394] Uyemoto et al., 1991 found it on apricot in California.^[394] See § Apricot.

Downy Mildew of Lettuce (

metalaxyl resistance.^[395]: 156 See § Lettuce

.

Kim et al., 2015 finds

codon 200 conferring TBZ resistance are common in California.^[397]

Karnal Bunt (

Tilletia indica, syn. Neovossia indica) has spread from Asia to this continent, and since 1996 has been found in this country.^[398]: 592 It is present in areas of this state, and Arizona and Texas.^[398]

^: 592

Corn Stunt Disease (Spiroplasma kunkelii) affects corn (maize, Zea mays) here.^[399]

Sudden Oak Death (

isolates here and are therefore probably the founding genotypes.^[112] See § Oak

.

Phytophthora fragariae is a common disease of strawberry here.

gene-for-gene relationship.^[402] Mathey 2013 shows that Rpf1 is responsible for most resistance in the Watsonville and Oxnard environments and provides a DNA test to predict performance.^[402] No tests are available for Phytophthora fragariae var. fragariae.^[389] FPS recommends diagnosis by visual inspection.^[389]

Apple mosaic virus (ApMV), Arabis mosaic virus (ArMV) and Tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV, an RNA virus) are common pathogens in strawberry.^[403]

herbaceous.^[389]

Foundation Plant Services (FPS) offers testing via leaf graft.^[404]

Hosts of Strawberry latent C virus include strawberry.^[389]

herbaceous or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).^[389]

Strawberry leaf roll disease is a common pathogen.^[389]

Strawberry mild yellow edge virus is diagnosed by cross infection of a test strawberry or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).^[389]

Hosts of Strawberry mottle virus include strawberry.^[389]

Strawberry pallidosis associated virus is diagnosed by cross infection of a test strawberry or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).^[389] It is one of several viuses causing Pallidosis Related Decline of Strawberry.^[405]: 68

Diagnosis of Strawberry vein banding virus is performed by cross infection of an herbaceous alternate host or by PCR.^[389]

Stonefruit § Notes

.

Hosts of Tobacco streak virus include strawberry.^[389]

Diagnosis of Tomato black ring virus is performed by cross infection of an herbaceous alternate host.^[389]

horticultural crops here.^[389]

Tomato ringspot virus is diagnosed by cross infection of an herbaceous alternate host.^[389] Hosts include strawberry.^[407]

Hosts of Xanthomonas fragariae include strawberry.^[389]

Aphelenchoides besseyi is a common horticultural nematode disease in California.^[389]

invasive grass, aiding the invasion.^[408]

Imperial County.^[409]

More than 1 virus is usually present in any strawberry plant which has progressed to

symptomatic infection.^[410]

Lettuce Mosaic Virus has caused severe losses at times up to 100%.^[411]: 282

Treatments

See Treatments in California agriculture.

Insurance

As with the entire country there is

County and by crop.^[412]

Research, testing, and propagation material

Foundation Plant Services

Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs) known to be relevant to the state's strawberry industry to identify those varieties specifically.^[376] California Seed & Plant Lab is an even more active, private molecular lab for the strawberry industry.^[376] CS&PL tests for clients here and around the world.^[376]

California's experiences with the Vine mealybug, Glassy-winged sharp-shooter, and Pierce's disease have informed the process of creating

geographic models for the spread of pests and diseases and their management in viticulture around the world.^[414]: 43 See § Glassy-winged sharpshooter and § Pierce's Disease

.

As of 2022[update] Professor Juan Pablo Giraldo (

nanomaterials applied to crops.^[415][416]

The

license from UC or the Broad Institute or both may be required to produce such products in the future.^[417]

Mexican farmworker learning additional skills in Salinas

, 2018

Labor

See also: Farmworkers in the United States

The

UC Davis Farm Labor program studies the state's farmworkers and provides information about them.^[418]

The

Grape boycott, especially for their positions on pesticides.^[421]

Despite the

illegal immigrants as farmworkers.^[422] Indeed, illegal immigration inflows increased in the 1990s.^[423]

In addition to advising producers, the Statewide Integrated Pest Management program (

UC IPM) began training farmworkers in 1988.^[424]

^: 382

By the late 1990s the large immigrant population had expanded the

Southern San Joaquin Valley, farmworkers had risen to a high proportion of the population by 2013.^[428]

Despite the passage of the California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975, by 2012 unions were less popular with farmworkers than they had been before it was passed.^[429]

The Borello 1988 decision classifies strawberry sharecroppers as

independent contractors.^[430]

Even when immigration was unrestricted, strawberry growers felt in 2017 that

President Trump, but were quickly surprised by the rhetoric of the administration due to the labor situation in the industry.^[432] As late as 2017 the illegal workforce was still projected to grow.^[433] A Pew Research Center analysis by Passel & Cohn expected continued lax enforcement to produce a continued population boom, including among California's agricultural workers.^[433] During and after the escalated deportation raids the lack of normal labor opened opportunities for others.^[434] Many high school students with farmworker family members quit school to join them in the fields.^[434]

Some farmworkers here are not employed here all year but instead travel to other agricultural employment while California is in the off season.^[435]

Although the entire tomato harvest was performed by laborers until recently, machines for harvest have been developed.

strawberry pickers earned ~$150/day or ~$18.75/hour.^[437]

The right personal protective equipment (PPE) is required for fumigant applicators and those working nearby.^[438] Practices and training and provided by the state Department of Pesticide Regulation.^[438]

As of 2019^[update], 9% of all

unauthorized immigrants in California are employed in this industry.^[439]

Enforcement of state laws and regulations regarding farm labor and pesticides is the responsibility of the County Agricultural Commissioners.[440]^: 19

Harrison & Getz 2015 study

organic fruit and vegetable workers here and find that working conditions generally improve with increasing farm size.^[441] Stockton et al., 2017's meta analysis shows workers were earning two-thirds of the average Californian due to a combination of low wages and underemployment.^[442]

Hundreds of thousands of members of native Mexican ethnics are estimated to live in the state as farmworkers.[443]

The state Department of Industrial Relations (DIR)^[444] regulates and provides information for workers and employers. DIR's Labor Enforcement Task Force (LETF) enforces such requirements as overtime.^[445] UCANR and UCCE also provide information for employers' business planning.^[446]

During 2021 field workers have been severely dissatisfied with working conditions.^[447] They complain of both suffering from the ongoing pandemic and from the financial impact of missing work.^[447]

The California Strawberry Scholarship Program is operated by the California Strawberry Growers' Fund.

schooling of strawberry pickers' children.^[448] The California Table Grape Growers have a similar program.^[449]

Billikopf has repeatedly (Billikopf 1999, Billikopf 2001) found that improved

working conditions improve worker productivity of strawberry pickers.^[450]

Demand for workers in grape cultivation is greatest from late June to early November for the San Joaquin Valley, and mid-May to early July for the Coachella Valley.^[451]

The Indigenous Farmworker Study is a program of the Indigenous Program of California Rural Legal Assistance which collects information on natives of Mexico employed in agriculture here.^[452]

Enforcement of labor laws has had little success in improving working conditions.^[453]

Richards 2018 finds chronic

labor shortage in some sectors.^[454]

Goodhue et al. 2011 find

labor costs in Strawberry § Notes and Raspberry § Notes.^[455]

Guthman 2017 finds many strawberry growers advocate for

soil fumigants as a way to maintain employment for strawberry field workers.^[456]

The 2022–2023 California floods devastated strawberry, other berries and greens cultivation areas, and impacted worker housing.^[457]

See also

• Agriculture in the United States

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External links

• California Agricultural Statistics Review 2017-2018 from the California Department of Food and Agriculture
• "Home".
  UC Davis Cost Studies. February 28, 2022. Archived from the original
  on June 26, 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2022.
• "California Grown".
  California Grown. California Department of Food and Agriculture
  . April 20, 2020. Retrieved July 6, 2022.