Agriculture in China
China primarily produces
History
The development of farming over the course of China's history has played a key role in supporting the growth of one of the largest populations in the world.
Archaeology
Analysis of stone tools by Professor Liu Li and others has shown that hunter-gatherers 23,000–19,500 years ago ground wild plants with the same tools that would later be used for millet and rice.[1]
Domesticated millet varieties
Excavations at
There is also a long tradition involving agriculture in Chinese mythology. In his book Permanent Agriculture: Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911), Professor Franklin Hiram King described and extolled the values of the traditional farming practices of China.[8]
Farming method improvements
Farming in China has always been very labor-intensive. However, throughout its history, various methods have been developed or imported that enabled greater farming production and efficiency. They also utilized the seed drill to help improve on row farming.
During the
For agricultural purposes the Chinese had invented the hydraulic-powered
Chinese ploughs from Han times on fulfil all these conditions of efficiency nicely, which is presumably why the standard Han plough team consisted of two animals only, and later teams usually of a single animal, rather than the four, six or eight draught animals common in Europe before the introduction of the curved mould-board and other new principles of design in the + 18th century. Though the mould-board plough first appeared in Europe in early medieval, if not in late Roman, times, pre-eighteenth century mould-boards were usually wooden and straight (Fig. 59). The enormous labour involved in pulling such a clumsy construction necessitated large plough-teams, and this meant that large areas of land had to be reserved as pasture. In China, where much less animal power was required, it was not necessary to maintain the mixed arable-pasture economy typical of Europe: fallows could be reduced and the arable area expanded, and a considerably larger population could be supported than on the same amount of land in Europe.[14]
— Francesca Bray
During the
By the
While around 750, 75% of China's population lived north of the river Yangtze, by 1250, 75% of the population lived south of the river. Such large-scale internal migration was possible due to the introduction of quick-ripening strains of rice from Vietnam suitable for multi-cropping.[15] This is also possibly the result of Northern China falling to invaders. With the hardships that come from conflict, many Chinese may have moved South to not starve.
The Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties had seen the rise of collective help organizations between farmers.[16]
In 1909 US Professor of Agriculture
-
Scroll depicting rice production, Yuan dynasty
People's Republic of China
Following the
In the 1958 "
Beginning in 1978, as part of the Four Modernizations campaign, the Family Production Responsibility System was created, dismantling communes and giving agricultural production responsibility back to individual households. Households are now given crop quotas that they were required to provide to their collective unit in return for tools, draft animals, seeds, and other essentials. Households, which now lease land from their collectives, are free to use their farmland however they see fit as long as they meet these quotas. This freedom has given more power to individual families to meet their individual needs. In addition to these structural changes, the Chinese government also engages in irrigation projects (such as the Three Gorges Dam), runs large state farms, and encourages mechanization and fertilizer use.[21]
By 1984, when about 99% of farm production teams had adopted the Family Production Responsibility System, the government began further economic reforms, aimed primarily at liberalizing agricultural pricing and marketing. In 1984, the government replaced mandatory procurement with voluntary contracts between farmers and the government. Later, in 1993, the government abolished the 40-year-old grain rationing system, leading to more than 90 percent of all annual agricultural produce to be sold at market-determined prices.
Since 1994, the government has instituted a number of policy changes aimed at limiting grain importation and increasing economic stability. Among these policy changes was the artificial increase of grain prices above market levels. This has led to increased grain production, while placing the heavy burden of maintaining these prices on the government. In 1995, the "Governor's Grain Bag Responsibility System" was instituted, holding provincial governors responsible for balancing grain supply and demand and stabilizing grain prices in their provinces. Later, in 1997, the "Four Separations and One Perfection" program was implemented to relieve some of the monetary burdens placed on the government by its grain policy.[22]
As China continues to industrialize, vast swaths of agricultural land are being converted into industrial land. Farmers displaced by such urban expansion often become
The most recent innovation in Chinese agriculture is a push into organic agriculture.[24] This rapid embrace of organic farming simultaneously serves multiple purposes, including food safety, health benefits, export opportunities, and, by providing price premiums for the produce of rural communities, the adoption of organics can help stem the migration of rural workers to the cities.[24] In the mid-1990s China became a net importer of grain, since its unsustainable practises of groundwater mining has effectively removed considerable land from productive agricultural use.[citation needed]
As of 2023, approximately 40% of China's workforce is engaged in farming, primarily at small scale.[25]: 174 Agricultural production accounts for less than 9% of China's GDP.[25]: 174
Major agricultural products
Crop distribution
Although China's agricultural output is the largest in the world, only 10% of its total land area can be cultivated. China's arable land, which represents 10% of the total arable land in the world, supports over 20% of the world's population.[26] Of this approximately 1.4 million square kilometers of arable land, only about 1.2% (116,580 square kilometers) permanently supports crops and 525,800 square kilometers are irrigated.[citation needed] The land is divided into approximately 200 million households, with an average land allocation of just 0.65 hectares (1.6 acres).
China's limited space for farming has been a problem throughout its history, leading to chronic food shortage and famine. While the production efficiency of farmland has grown over time, efforts to expand to the west and the north have met with limited success, as such land is generally colder and drier than traditional farmlands to the east. Since the 1950s, farm space has also been pressured by the increasing land needs of industry and cities.
Peri-urban agriculture
Such increases in the sizes of cities, such as the administrative district of Beijing's increase from 4,822 km2 (1,862 sq mi) in 1956 to 16,808 km2 (6,490 sq mi) in 1958, has led to the increased adoption of peri-urban agriculture. Such "suburban agriculture" led to more than 70% of non-staple food in Beijing, mainly consisting of vegetables and milk, to be produced by the city itself in the 1960s and 1970s. Recently, with relative food security in China, periurban agriculture has led to improvements in the quality of the food available, as opposed to quantity. One of the more recent experiments in urban agriculture is the Modern Agricultural Science Demonstration Park in Xiaotangshan.[27]
Food crops
About 75% of China's cultivated area is used for food crops.
provinces.Other crops include sweet potatoes in the south, white
.Oil seeds are important in Chinese agriculture, supplying edible and industrial oils and forming a large share of agricultural exports. In North and Northeast China, Chinese soybeans are grown to be used in tofu and cooking oil. China is also a leading producer of peanuts, which are grown in Shandong and Hebei provinces. Other oilseed crops are
Citrus is a major cash crop in southern China, with production scattered along and south of the Yangtze River valley. Mandarins are the most popular citrus in China, with roughly double the output of oranges.[28]
Other important food crops for China include green and jasmine teas (popular among the Chinese population), black tea (as an export), sugarcane, and sugar beets. Tea plantations are located on the hillsides of the middle Yangtze Valley and in the southeast provinces of Fujian and Zhejiang. Sugarcane is grown in Guangdong and Sichuan, while sugar beets are raised in Heilongjiang province and on irrigated land in Inner Mongolia. Lotus is widely cultivated throughout southern China.[29][30]
Fiber crops
China is the leading producer of cotton, which is grown throughout, but especially in the areas of the North China Plain, the Yangtze river delta, the middle Yangtze valley, and the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Other fiber crops include ramie, flax, jute, and hemp. Sericulture, the practice of silkworm raising, is also practiced in central and southern China.
Livestock
China has a large livestock population, with
As demand for gourmet foods grows, production of more exotic meats increases as well. Based on survey data from 684 Chinese
Increased incomes and increased demand for meat, especially pork, has resulted in demand for improved breeds of livestock, breeding stock imported particularly from the United States. Some of these breeds are adapted to
Fishing
China accounts for about one-third of the total fish production of the world. Aquaculture, the breeding of fish in ponds and lakes, accounts for more than half of its output. The principal aquaculture-producing regions are close to urban markets in the middle and lower Yangtze valley and the Zhu Jiang delta.
Production
In its first fifty years, the
Crop[37] | 1949 Output (tons) | 1978 Output (tons) | 1999 Output (tons) | |
1. | Grain | 113,180,000 | 304,770,000 | 508,390,000 |
2. | Cotton | 444,000 | 2,167,000 | 3,831,000 |
3. | Oil-bearing crops | 2,564,000 | 5,218,000 | 26,012,000 |
4. | Sugarcane | 2,642,000 | 21,116,000 | 74,700,000 |
5. | Sugarbeet | 191,000 | 2,702,000 | 8,640,000 |
6. | Flue-cured tobacco | 43,000 | 1,052,000 | 2,185,000 |
7. | Tea | 41,000 | 268,000 | 676,000 |
8. | Fruit | 1,200,000 | 6,570,000 | 62,376,000 |
9. | Meat | 2,200,000 | 8,563,000 | 59,609,000 |
10. | Aquatic products | 450,000 | 4,660,000 | 41,220,000 |
As of 2011, China was both the world's largest producer and consumer of agricultural products.[38][39] However, the researcher Lin Erda has stated a projected fall of possibly 14% to 23% by 2050 due to water shortages and other impacts by climate change; China has increased the budget for agriculture by 20% in 2009, and continues to support energy efficiency measures, renewable technology, and other efforts with investments, such as the over 30% green component of the $586bn fiscal stimulus package announced in November 2008.[40]
In 2018:[41]
- It was the 2nd largest producer of maize (257.1 million tons), second only to the USA;
- It was the largest producer of rice (212.1 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of wheat (131.4 million tons);
- It was the 3rd largest producer of sugarcane (108 million tons), second only to Brazil and India;
- It was the largest producer of potato (90.2 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of watermelon (62.8 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of tomatoes(61.5 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of cucumber / pickles (56.2 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of sweet potato (53.0 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of apple (39.2 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of eggplant (34.1 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of cabbage (33.1 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of onion (24.7 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of spinach (23.8 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of garlic (22.2 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of green bean (19.9 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of tangerine (19.0 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of carrots(17.9 million tons);
- It was the 3rd largest producer of cotton (17.7 million tons), second only to India and the USA;
- It was the largest producer of peanut (17.3 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of pear (16.0 million tons);
- It was the 4th largest producer of soy(14.1 million tons), losing to the US, Brazil and Argentina;
- It was the largest producer of grape (13.3 million tons);
- It was the 2nd largest producer of rapeseed (13.2 million tons), second only to Canada;
- It was the largest producer of pea (12.9 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of melon (12.7 million tons);
- It was the 8th largest producer of sugar beet (12 million tons), which serves to produce sugar and ethanol;
- It was the 2nd largest producer of banana (11.2 million tons), second only to India;
- It was the largest producer of cauliflower and broccoli (10.6 million tons);
- It was the 2nd largest producer of orange (9.1 million tons), second only to Brazil;
- It was the largest producer of pumpkin (8.1 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of asparagus (7.9 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of plum (6.7 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of mushroom and truffle (6.6 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of grapefruit (4.9 million tons);
- It was the 15th largest producer of cassava (4.9 million tons);
- It was the 2nd largest producer of mango (including mangosteen and guava) (4.8 million tons), second only to India;
- It was the largest producer of persimmon (3.0 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of strawberry (2.9 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of tea (2.6 million tons);
- It produced 2.5 million tons of sunflower seed;
- It was the 3rd largest producer of lemon (2.4 million tons), second only to India and Mexico;
- It was the largest producer of tobacco (2.2 million tons);
- It was the 8th largest producer of sorghum (2.1 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of kiwi (2.0 million tons);
- It was the largest producer of chestnut (1.9 million tons);
- It produced 1.9 million tons of taro;
- It produced 1.8 million tons of fava beans;
- It was the 3rd largest producer of millet (1.5 million tons), second only to India and Niger;
- It was the 8th largest producer of pineapple (1.5 million tons);
- It produced 1.4 million tons of barley;
- It was the largest producer of buckwheat (1.1 million tons);
- It was the 6th largest producer of oats(1 million tons);
- It was the 4th largest producer of rye (1 million tons), second only to Germany, Poland and Russia;
- It produced 1 million tons of tallow tree;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.[41]
Challenges
Throughout China's history, its relative lack of arable land has been a challenge.[42] China has about 22% of the world population, but must feed it with only 9% of the world's arable land.[42] China's water resources are likewise limited, as it has only 6% of the world's water supply.[42]
Inefficiencies in the agricultural market
Despite rapid growth in output, the Chinese agricultural sector still faces several challenges. Farmers in several provinces, such as Shandong, Zhejiang, Anhui, Liaoning, and Xinjiang often have a hard time selling their agricultural products to customers due to a lack of information about current conditions.[43]
Between the producing farmer in the countryside and the end-consumer in the cities there is a chain of intermediaries.[43] Because a lack of information flows through them, farmers find it difficult to foresee the demand for different types of fruits and vegetables. In order to maximize their profits they, therefore, opt to produce those fruits and vegetables that created the highest revenues for farmers in the region in the previous year. If, however, most farmers do so, this causes the supply of fresh products to fluctuate substantially year on year. Relatively scarce products in one year are produced in excess the following year because of expected higher profit margins. The resulting excess supply, however, forces farmers to reduce their prices and sell at a loss. The scarce, revenue creating products of one year become the over-abundant, loss-making products in the following, and vice versa.[44]
Efficiency is further impaired in the transportation of agricultural products from the farms to the actual markets. According to figures from the Commerce Department, up to 25% of fruits and vegetables rot before being sold, compared to around 5% in a typical developed country. As intermediaries cannot sell these rotten fruits they pay farmers less than they would if able to sell all or most of the fruits and vegetables. This reduces farmer's revenues although the problem is caused by post-production inefficiencies, which they are not themselves aware of during price negotiations with intermediaries.[45]
These information and transportation problems highlight inefficiencies in the market mechanisms between farmers and end-consumers, impeding farmers from taking advantage of the fast development of the rest of the Chinese economy. The resulting small profit margin does not allow them to invest in the necessary agricultural inputs (machinery, seeds, fertilizers, etc.) to raise their productivity and improve their standards of living, from which the whole of the Chinese economy would benefit. This in turn increases the exodus of people from the countryside to the cities, which already face urbanization issues.[46]
In a speech in September 2020,
Climate change
The negative effects on China's agriculture caused by climate change have appeared. There was an increase in agricultural production instability, severe damages caused by high temperature and drought, and lower production and quality in the prairie. In the near future, climate change may cause negative influences, causing a reduction of output in wheat, rice, and corn, and change the agricultural distribution of production.[48] China is also dealing with agricultural issues due global demands of products such as soybeans. This global demand is causing coupled effects that stretch across oceans which in turn is affecting other countries.[citation needed]
Over the past 70 years, climate change seriously reduced China's food security, mainly by inducingInternational trade
China is the world's largest importer of
While most years China's agricultural production is sufficient to feed the country, in down years, China has to import grain. Due to the shortage of available farm land and an abundance of labor, it might make more sense to import land-extensive crops (such as wheat and rice) and to save China's scarce cropland for high-value export products, such as fruits, nuts, or vegetables. In order to maintain grain independence and ensure food security, however, the Chinese government has enforced policies that encourage grain production at the expense of more-profitable crops. Despite heavy restrictions on crop production, China's agricultural exports have greatly increased in recent years.[52]
Governmental influence
One important motivator of increased international trade was China's inclusion in the
Food safety
In the early 2000s, excessive pesticide residues, low food hygiene, unsafe additives, contamination with heavy metals and other contaminants and misuse of veterinary drugs had led to trade restrictions with some nations such as Japan, the United States, and the European Union.[54] These problems have also led to public outcry, such as in the melamine-tainted dog food scare and the carcinogenic-tainted seafood import restriction, leading to measures such as the "China-free" label.[55] In the milk scandal in China in 2008, many children became ill due to consumption of melamine-contaminated milk products, and a number of domestic dairy brands were found to contain melamine in their products, leading many countries to ban the import of Chinese dairy products.[56]
In 2011,
Organic food products
China has developed a Green Food program where produce is certified for low pesticide input.[24] This has been articulated into Green food Grade A and Grade AA. This Green Food AA standard has been aligned with IFOAM international standards for organic farming and has formed the basis of the rapid expansion of organic agriculture in China.[24]
China's organic food production has experienced a rapid expansion in the 2010s, largely attributed to the booming domestic market due to the heightened food safety problem. In many cases, organic food production is organized by organic food companies leasing land from small scale farmers. Farmers' cooperatives and contract farming are also found to be common organizational structures of organic farming in China. The Chinese government has provided various policy and financial supports for the development of the organic sector. In recent years, non-certified organic production in diverse forms such as permaculture and natural farming is also emerging in China, often initiated by entrepreneurs or civil society organizations.[58]
See also
- History of China
- History of agriculture
- Population history of China
- History of canals in China
- Lettuce production in China
- China Green Food Development Center
- Peak water#China
- Wang Zhen (official)
- Franklin Hiram King
- Land use in the People's Republic of China
- Aquaculture in China
- Women in agriculture in China
References
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- ^ Scott, Steffanie; Si, Zhenzhong; Schumilas, Theresa and Chen, Aijuan. (2018). Organic Food and Farming in China: Top-down and Bottom-up Ecological Initiatives New York: Routledge
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- Scott, Steffanie et al. (2018). Organic Food and Farming in China: Top-down and Bottom-up Ecological Initiatives. New York: Routledge.
Further reading
- Chai, Joseph C. H. An economic history of modern China (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2011).
- Perkins, Dwight H. Agricultural development in China, 1368-1968 (1969). pmline
- The Dragon and the Elephant: Agricultural and Rural Reforms in China and India Edited by Ashok Gulati and Shenggen Fan (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press
- Hsu, Cho-yun. Han Agriculture (Washington U. Press, 1980)
- Official Statistics from FAO
- Farmers, Mao, and Discontent in China: From the Great Leap Forward to the Present by Dongping Han, Monthly Review, November 2009
- The First National Agricultural Census in China (1997) National Bureau of Statistics of China
- Gale, Fred. (2013). Growth and Evolution in China's Agricultural Support Policies. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
- Scott, Steffanie; Si, Zhenzhong; Schumilas, Theresa and Chen, Aijuan. (2018). Organic Food and Farming in China: Top-down and Bottom-up Ecological Initiatives. New York. Routledge.
- Communiqués on Major Data of the Second National Agricultural Census of China (2006), No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 National Bureau of Statistics of China. Copies on Internet Archive.