Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi

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Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi
أحمد بن إبراهيم الغازي
Imam
Statue of Imam Ahmad in Mogadishu, Somalia
Leader of Adal
Reignc. 1527 – 21 February 1543
PredecessorAbu Bakr ibn Muhammad
SuccessorNur ibn Mujahid
Bornc. 1506
Hubat, Adal Sultanate
Died21 February 1543(1543-02-21) (aged 36–37)
Wayna Daga, Ethiopian Empire
Burial
Spouse
Issue
  • Mohammad ibn Ahmad[1]: xxxiv 
  • Ahmed ibn Ahmed Al Najashi
  • Nasr Ad Din ibn Ahmed
ReligionSunni Islam

Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (

Ethiopian-Adal War.[4] He is often referred to as the "King of Zeila" in medieval texts.[1]
: 79 

Dubbed "The African Attila" by Orientalist Frederick A. Edwards,[5]: 324  Imam Ahmed‘s conquests reached all the way to the borders of the Sultanate of Funj.[6][7] Imam Ahmed won nearly all his battles against the Ethiopians before 1541 and after his victory at Battle of Amba Sel, the Ethiopian Emperor, Dawit II was never again in a position to offer a pitched battle to his army[5]: 341 [8]: 329  and was subsequently forced to live as an outlaw constantly hounded by Imam Ahmed's soldiers, the Malassay.[9]

Early years

Ruins of Hubat near Dire Dawa

Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi was born in 1506

Somalis into his army. Together with his Somali allies Abu Bakr defeated and killed Adashe near Zeila in 1525.[17]: 126  The remnants of Adashe's forces retreated back to Hubat where their numbers soon rose to over 100. The Sultan attempted to pursue but Ahmad defeated the Sultan in the field; Abu Bakr was forced to take refuge in Ogaden with the Somali nomads. Ahmad did not follow him. After raising another large body of Somali followers, Abu Bakr met Ahmad for the second time. It was an indecisive clash that only forced the Sultan to retreat back into the Ogaden and Ahmad remained in Hubat
as an independent governor of the rebel province.

Upon hearing that a rebel named Ahmad ibn Ibrahim was in a power struggle with the Adal leaders, the Emperor of Ethiopia Dawit II sent his general Degelhan to confront him. The Abyssinian campaign originally seemed successful as large amounts of women and children of Adal were captured by Degelhan including the mother of Ahmad's commander Abu Bakr Qatin. Meanwhile, Emir Ahmad had laid a trap in Hubat: splitting his unit into three, he waited for the Abyssinians to enter the region after sacking Harar and ambushed them in the Battle of Hubat. The remaining Abyssinian army who were not killed fled in panic, thus Ahmed's troops won decisively and were able to recover stolen booty. Ahmad's victory not only strengthened his fighting capacity, but also spread his fame far and wide. The Sultan hearing about this gathered a large force of his Somali followers and besieged his capital at Siege of Hubat. Ahmad was unprepared and in a mountain encampment on Gara Muleta. The sultan besieged Ahmad and his small force for ten days, when he hoped to starve them. However, at this critical moment, the sheikhs of Harar intervened and reconciled the two leaders. Ahmad was forced to recognize the authority of the Adalite state for the first time in his career.[8]: 327–328 [20]

This peace was immediately broken by Abu Bakr, who tried to assassinate Ahmad while he was in

Harla, the Argobba, the Afar and the Arabs. By about 1527-9, the Imam was at the head of a strong state, with an ever-increasing sphere of influence in the interior of the Horn, and ready to lead the crucial military offensive against the Christian empire.[22]: 85 [23]

Invasion of Abyssinia

Early 20th century illustration of Imam Ahmad

The chronicle of Imam Ahmad's invasion of Abyssinia is depicted in various Arabic, Abyssinian and other foreign sources. In 1529 Imam Ahmad finally decided to embark on a conquest of Abyssinia, he soon met the Abyssinians at the

Richard Pankhurst attributes Imam Ahmad's victory to the presence amongst his followers of matchlockmen. This battle was probably the first time Ethiopian forces had to fight against a force equipped with firearms.[17]: 168  He adds that the Abyssinians were unable to endure the “Thunder of the Turkish artillery” and did not know how to cure the wounds which the bullets made.[24]

However, the Imam wasn’t able to take advantage of this victory immediately due to tribal infighting within his army. He was forced to return to

Abay River to the relative security of Gojjam
. It was here in Amhara that the Adalites came across many churches and palaces built by the Abyssinians. The Imam was stunned by the beauty of these churches and according to Arab Faqih:

The Imam asked all the Arabs who were with him, "Is there the like of this church, with its images and its gold, in Byzantium, or in India, or in any other place?" They replied, "We never saw or heard of its like in Byzantium or India or anywhere in the world."[25]: 12 

Nevertheless, he ordered all of the churches built by the Abyssinians to be destroyed, including Mekane Selassie, Atronsa Maryam, Debre Nagwadgwad and Ganata Giyorgis. He soon campaigned against the people of

Garad Matan. The Adalites attempted to capture Degalhan but he was able to escape through Hadiya. For the next two years the Adalites would secure the southern Abyssinian provinces of Dawaro, Bali, Fatagar, Hadiya and Wej. After the Adalites conquered Damot and subjugated the pagans of Gafat the Imam marched north with his army.[25]
: 145 

The Imam was passionately interested in converting newly occupied territories as his men were made up of religious zealots. But many of the conversions were forced. While in the

Debre Berhan area the Imam learned that the locals had not converted to Islam nor did they offer to pay jizya. He then ordered that anyone who failed to embrace Islam should be brought before him. Among those brought before the Imam were two Christian chiefs, finding them adamant in their faith, he then declared “We have decided to cut your heads off!” To which the Christians replied “Very well”. The Imam was surprised but ordered them to be put to death.[24]
The Imam would then call an assembly of his Emirs, chieftains and all the Muslim leaders to state his intention of staying in Abyssinia

Praised be God who has conquered the whole of the land of Abyssinia. Now let us send to the land of Sa'd ad-Din, to bring up our wives and our children. Let us make our homes in Abyssinia. It is no longer possible for us to go back down to our country, or to leave this one.

They would then make plans to invade

Seraye and massacred the locals.[17]: 218 [25]
: 240 

Siemen and Dembiya. The Beta Israel assisted the Adalites in subduing the Christians and the establishments on the islands of Lake Tana were looted and destroyed.[27] In 1536 the Adalites invaded Gojjam, to the south of Lake Tana, and massacred the people there. The next year the Imam went to Dawaro and stayed there for eight months, and then went on to Angot. The Emperor was forced to live as an outlaw in his own realm constantly hounded by Imam Ahmed's soldiers the Malassay, Dawit then dispatched João Bermudes, who had arrived in Ethiopia with Dom Rodrigo de Lima, to reach out to the King of Portugal for military aid.[9][22]
: 173 

The King of Portugal would eventually send ships with 400 Portuguese musketeers, but when they arrived in 1541, Dawit II was dead and his son Gelawdewos had succeeded him.[25]: 260  The Portuguese led by

Afar Depression.[22]: 89 [1]
: lix f. 

Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's pioneering use of cannons figured in his conquest of Ethiopian territories.[28]

The Imam successfully petitioned to the Turkish governor of Yemen Eyalet in Zabid, offering "much money" and submission to the official, he received an additional 2,000 musketeers from Arabia, and artillery and 900 picked men from the Ottomans to assist him. Meanwhile, due to casualties and other duties, da Gama's force was reduced to 300 musketeers. After the rains ended, Imam Ahmad attacked the Portuguese camp at Wolfa and through weight of numbers killed all but 140 of da Gama's troops. Da Gama himself, badly wounded, was captured with ten of his men and, after refusing an offer to spare his life if he would convert to Islam, was tortured and executed.[1]: 161 

The Imam was certain that the surviving Portuguese were scattered, without their firearms, and alone in a foreign land, he concluded that this threat was ended, dismissed all but two hundred of the foreign musketeers, and proceeded to his camp at

Wogera, killing Sayid Mehmed. From the prisoners it was learned that the Imam was camped only 5 days' march away at Deresgue, and flush with victory the army marched to confront their enemy.[1]: 75  The Imam and his men were apparently stunned that the Portuguese had managed to reassemble and were looking for battle, according to Castanhoso this demoralized the Adalites and put fear into their hearts as "they understood well that we had only come to avenge the past".[1]
: 77 

The Abyssinians and Portuguese met Ahmad on 21 February 1543 in the Battle of Wayna Daga. The Imam had an army of over 15,000 soldiers including 200 Turkish musketeers, where as the Abyssinians and Portuguese had a combined force of around 8,000 men. The Abyssinians charged but the Adalites counterattacked and seemed to be pushing back the initial assault. The Abyssinian cavalry then threw themselves vigorously into the Adal lines which pushed the Adalites back. The Imam seeing his men lose ground moved up to encourage them, it was here that the Imam was killed while attempting to rally his men, although the sources differ in how he died.[1]: 80  Upon seeing the death of the Imam, his followers had begun to flee from the battlefield. What followed was a devastating rout as the Abyssinians pursued the fleeing Adalites and cut them down as they ran.[1]: 192 [22]: 89 

The Imam's wife Bati del Wambara managed to escape the battlefield with the remnants of the army and retreated back to Harar, abandoning the occupation of Abyssinia. The corpse of the Imam was beheaded and Gelawdewos ordered his head to be set on a spear, and carried around in all of Abyssinia, so that the people know that the conqueror who had wrought them such evils was indeed dead. The Abyssinians then set up great festivals across the country celebrating the death of the Imam, as Castanhoso narrates "We remained in great pleasure, seeing each day the Abyssinians delighting in that victory, and in the liberty in which they found themselves."[1]: 82 

Character

Muslim sources paint the Imam as an ascetic and a model

Mujahid. Shihab Ad Din notes that during a campaign in Gendebelo he rejected the inhabitants offers of gold for his wife and rebuked the protests of his top lieutenants insisting that the gold was to be used only for the jihad.[25]
: 38 

Soon after assuming power in 1527 he forbade wine, gambling, and dances accompanied by drums. He also was known to patronize

Najashi in Negash to pay his respects as well as naming his son Ahmed Al Najashi after him.[25]
: 350f 

Legacy

Jami mosque in Harar, the location of Ahmed Ibrahim's gravestone[30]

Imam Ahmad’s invasion was arguably the single most important chapter in Ethiopia's long history. The destruction of cultural assets and national pride was immense. Imam Ahmad’s invasion left an indelible mark on the Ethiopian psyche. As

Shewan folklore portrays Imam Ahmed as a giant of mythical stature who was only halted by 500 men, on 500 horses, with 500 rifle shots.[32] Ethiopian chronicles claim that 90% of the Empire was islamized during his conquests.[33]
According to : 94 

Historian Didier Morin states Ahmed Ibrahim who holds the title imam is often incorrectly identified with commander Ahmed Girri Bin Hussein Al Somali.[35]

Further reading

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Whiteway, Richard Stephen, ed. (1902). The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541-1543, as Narrated by Castanhoso, with Some Contemporary Letters, the Short Account of Bermudez, and Certain Extracts from Correa. Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, 2nd series. Vol. 10. Translated by Whiteway. London:
    ISSN 0072-9396
    .
  2. .
  3. from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2019-02-11.
  4. from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2019-02-11.
  5. ^ a b c Edwards, Frederick A. (January–April 1905). "The Conquest of Abyssinia". The Imperial and Asiatic Quarterly Review and Oriental and Colonial Record. 3rd series. 19 (37 & 38). Woking: The Oriental Institute: 320–360.
  6. ^ Burton, Richard. First Footsteps in East Africa. p. 179.
  7. .
  8. ^ a b c Budge, E. A. Wallis (1928). A History of Ethiopia Nubia & Abyssinia. Vol. 1. London: Methuen & Co. Ltd.
  9. ^ from the original on 2022-09-27. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
  10. ^ ʻěnbāqom (1969). Anqaṣa Amin: la porte de la foi. Apologie éthiopienne du christianisme contre l'Islam à partir du Coran. Introduction, texte critique et traduction par E.J. Van Donzel... (in French). Brill Archive. p. 9.
  11. from the original on 2021-02-14. Retrieved 2020-12-27. Imam Ahmed, born in 1506 at Hubat (specifically at Za‟ka, 32 km northeast of Harar town), was the leader of the militant Muslim Sultanate of Adal which embarked on a conquest of the Christian highland kingdom between 1529 and 1543.
  12. ^
    Gildessa and Harar
    ) ...
  13. ^
  14. ^
  15. from the original on 2021-02-14. Retrieved 2020-12-27. However, based on available meager documents, it has been tried to show that Imam Ahmad was an ethnic Balaw on his father's side and an Afar on his mother's side. The former is arguably based on the evidence weighed Gragn's paternal ancestry to be more convincing. As far as the later is concerned, attempts have been made to present a number of arguments are adequate to conclude that Imam was maternally of Afar origin. But the evidences that discuss his Afar connection, no concrete linkage is established with his with his paternal side while the Balaw tradition could at least off paternal relation. If then, Imam Ahmad was a Balaw in his paternal side and we accept an Afar connection due to his maternal ancestry. Imam Ahmad was a Balaw because genealogy is counted based on the paternal clan identity in most societies found in the Horn of Africa.
  16. .
  17. ^ a b c d e Richard Pankhurst (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: In Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century Essay. Red Sea Press. from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2019-02-11.
  18. from the original on 2021-05-08. Retrieved 2021-05-08.
  19. ^ Adashe. 1905. Archived from the original on 2023-04-08. Retrieved 2021-05-08.
  20. ^ Hassan, Mohammed. Oromo of Ethiopia (PDF). University of London. p. 30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-02-13. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
  21. ^ Cambridge illustrated atlas, Warfare: Renaissance to Revolution, 1492–1792, by Jeremy Black pg 9
  22. ^ a b c d e Trimingham, J. Spencer (1952). Islam in Ethiopia (PDF). London, New York, Toronto: Oxford University Press.
  23. .
  24. ^ a b Pankhurst, The Ethiopians, p. 88
  25. ^ a b c d e f g Shihāb al-Dīn Aḥmad ibn ʻAbd al-Qādir, also known as ʻArab Faqīh (2003). Futūḥ Al-Ḥabaša: The Conquest of Abyssinia [16th Century]. Translated by Stenhouse, Paul Lester. Annotations by Richard Pankhurst. Hollywood, California, USA: Tsehai Publishers & Distributors.
    OCLC 57236304
    .
  26. Pankhurst, Richard R. K.
    1961. An Introduction to the Economic History of Ethiopia. London: Lalibela House.
  27. ^ Futuh, pp. 381–384.
  28. ^ Jeremy Black, Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792, (Cambridge University Press: 1996), p.9.
  29. ^ Sic. Early visitors to Ethiopia commonly identified the Emperor with the legendary Prester John
  30. ^ Insoll, Timothy. The Mosques of Harar: An Archaeological and Historical Study (PDF). University of Exeter. p. 6.
  31. ^ .
  32. ^ Rochet d'Héricourt, Charles-Xavier (1841). Journey to the eastern coast of the Red Sea, to the land of Adel and the kingdom of Choa. p. 209.
  33. ^ Solomon Gebreyes Beyene, The Chronicle of King Gälawdewos (1540-1559): A Critical Edition with Annotated Translation, p. 185, Chap. 4, https://d-nb.info/1116605163/34
  34. ^ Cerulli, Enrico. Islam: Yesterday and Today translated by Emran Waber. Istituto Per L'Oriente. p. 218.
  35. .

External links