Al-Ghazali
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Influenced
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Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ṭūsiyy al-Ghazali (
He is considered to be the 11th century's
Much of Al-Ghazali's work stemmed around his spiritual crises following his appointment as the head of the
Biography
Al-Ghazali was born in c. 1058 in
A posthumous tradition, the authenticity of which has been questioned in recent scholarship, is that his father died in poverty and left the young al-Ghazali and his brother
He underwent a spiritual crisis in 1095, which some speculate was brought on by clinical hysteria,[55][56][57] abandoned his career and left Baghdad on the pretext of going on pilgrimage to Mecca. Making arrangements for his family, he disposed of his wealth and adopted an ascetic lifestyle. According to biographer Duncan B. Macdonald, the purpose of abstaining from scholastic work was to confront the spiritual experience and more ordinary understanding of "the Word and the Traditions."[58] After some time in Damascus and Jerusalem, with a visit to Medina and Mecca in 1096, he returned to Tus to spend the next several years in uzla (seclusion). The seclusion consisted in abstaining from teaching at state-sponsored institutions, but he continued to publish, receive visitors and teach in the zawiya (private madrasa) and khanqah (Sufi lodge) that he had built.
School affiliations
Part of a series on |
Ash'arism |
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Background |
Al-Ghazali contributed significantly to the development of a systematic view of
He is viewed as the key member of the influential
Works
A total of about 70 works can be attributed to al-Ghazali.[63][36][64] He is also known to have written a fatwa against the Taifa kings of al-Andalus, declaring them to be unprincipled, not fit to rule and that they should be removed from power. This fatwa was used by Yusuf ibn Tashfin to justify his conquest of al-Andalus.[65]
Incoherence of the Philosophers
Al-Ghazali's 11th century book titled Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") marked a major turn in Islamic epistemology. The encounter with skepticism led al-Ghazali to investigate a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God.
In the next century,
The Incoherence also marked a turning point in Islamic philosophy in its vehement rejections of Aristotle and Plato. The book took aim at the Falāsifa, a loosely defined group of Islamic philosophers from the 8th through the 11th centuries (most notable among them Avicenna and al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon the Ancient Greeks.
The influence of Al-Ghazali's book is still debated. Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science George Saliba in 2007 argued that the decline of science in the 11th century has been overstated, pointing to continuing advances, particularly in astronomy, as late as the 14th century.[70]
Professor of Mathematics Nuh Aydin wrote in 2012 that one the most important reasons of the decline of science in the Islamic world has been Al-Ghazali's attack of philosophers (scientists, physicists, mathematicians, logicians). The attack peaked in his book Incoherence, whose central idea of theological occasionalism implies that philosophers cannot give rational explanations to either metaphysical or physical questions. The idea caught on and nullified the critical thinking in the Islamic world.[71]
On the other hand, author and journalist Hassan Hassan in 2012 argued that while indeed scientific thought in Islam was stifled in the 11th century, the person mostly to blame is not al-Ghazali but Nizam al-Mulk.[72]
The Revival of Religious Sciences (Ihya' Ulum al-Din)
Part of a series on Islam Sufism |
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Islam portal |
Another of al-Ghazali's major works is
It contains four major sections: Acts of worship (Rub' al-'ibadat), Norms of Daily Life (Rub' al-'adatat), The ways to Perdition (Rub' al-muhlikat) and The Ways to Salvation (Rub' al-munjiyat). The Ihya became the most frequently recited Islamic text after the Qur'an and the hadith. Its great achievement was to bring orthodox Sunni theology and Sufi mysticism together in a useful, comprehensive guide to every aspect of Muslim life and death.
The Alchemy of Happiness
The Alchemy of Happiness is a rewritten version of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. After the existential crisis that caused him to completely re-examine his way of living and his approach to religion, al-Ghazali put together The Alchemy of Happiness.[76]
Disciplining the Soul
One of the key sections of Ghazali's Revival of the Religious Sciences is Disciplining the Soul, which focuses on the internal struggles that every Muslim will face over the course of his lifetime.[77] The first chapter primarily focuses on how one can develop himself into a person with positive attributes and good personal characteristics . The second chapter has a more specific focus: sexual satisfaction and gluttony.[77] Here, Ghazali states that indeed every man has these desires and needs, and that it is natural to want these things.[77] However, the Prophet explicitly states that there must be a middle ground for man, in order to practice the tenets of Islam faithfully. The ultimate goal that Ghazali is presenting not only in these two chapters, but in the entirety of The Revival of the Religious Sciences, is that there must be moderation in every aspect of the soul of a man, an equilibrium. These two chapters were the 22nd and 23rd chapters, respectively, in Ghazali's Revival of the Religious Sciences.[77]
The Eternity of the World
Al-Ghazali crafted his rebuttal of the Aristotelian viewpoint on the creation of the world in The Eternity of the World. Al-Ghazali essentially formulates two main arguments for what he views as a sacrilegious thought process. Central to the Aristotelian approach is the concept that motion will always precede motion, or in other words, a force will always create another force, and therefore for a force to be created, another force must act upon that force.[36] This means that in essence time stretches infinitely both into the future and into the past, which therefore proves that God did not create the universe at one specific point in time. Al-Ghazali counters this by first stating that if the world was created with exact boundaries, then in its current form there would be no need for a time before the creation of the world by God.[36]
The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief
Al-Ghazali lays out in The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief his approach to Muslim orthodoxy. Ghazali veers from the often hardline stance of many of his contemporaries during this time period and states that as long as one believes in the Prophet Muhammad and God himself, there are many different ways to practice Islam and that any of the many traditions practiced in good faith by believers should not be viewed as heretical by other Muslims.[49] While Ghazali does state that any Muslim practicing Islam in good faith is not guilty of apostasy, he does outline in The Criterion that there is one standard of Islam that is more correct than the others, and that those practicing the faith incorrectly should be moved to change.[49] In Ghazali's view, only the Prophet himself could deem a faithfully practicing Muslim an infidel, and his work was a reaction to the religious persecution and strife that occurred often during this time period between various Islamic sects.[49]
Deliverance from Error
The
Works in Persian
Al-Ghazali wrote most of his works in
Another authentic work of al-Ghazali is the so-called "first part" of the Nasihat al-muluk (Counsel for kings), addressed to the Saljuqid ruler of Khurasan Ahmad b. Malik-shah Sanjar (r. 490-552/1097-1157).[80] The text was written after an official reception at his court in 503/1109 and upon his request. Al-Ghazali was summoned to Sanjar because of the intrigues of his opponents and their criticism of his student's compilation in Arabic, al-Mankhul min taʿliqat al-usul (The sifted notes on the fundamentals), in addition to his refusal to continue teaching at the Nizamiya of Nishapur. After the reception, al-Ghazali had, apparently, a private audience with Sanjar, during which he quoted a verse from the Quran 14:24: "Have you not seen how Allah sets forth a parable of a beautiful phrase (being) like a beautiful tree, whose roots are firm and whose branches are in Heaven." The genuine text of the Nasihat al-muluk, which is actually an official epistle with a short explanatory note on al-Manḵul added on its frontispiece.[81]
The majority of other Persian texts, ascribed to him with the use of his fame and authority, especially in the genre of Mirrors for Princes, are either deliberate forgeries fabricated with different purposes or compilations falsely attributed to him. The most famous among them is Ay farzand (O Child!). This is undoubtedly a literary forgery fabricated in Persian one or two generations after al-Ghazali's death. The sources used for the forgery consist of two genuine letters by al-Ghazali's (number 4, in part, and number 33, totally); both appear in the Fazaʾil al-anam.[82] Another source is a letter known as ʿAyniya and written by Muhammad's younger brother Majd al-Din Ahmad al-Ghazali (d. 520/1126) to his famous disciple ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani (492-526/1098-1131); the letter was published in the Majmuʿa-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-i Ghazali (Collection of the Persian writings of Ahmad Ghazali).[83] The other is ʿAyn al-Quzat's own letter, published in the Namaha-yi ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani (Letters by ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani).[84] Later, Ay farzand was translated into Arabic and became famous as Ayyuha al-walad, the Arabic equivalent of the Persian title. The earliest manuscripts with the Arabic translation date from the second half of the 16th and most of the others from the 17th century.[85] The earliest known secondary translation from Arabic into Ottoman Turkish was done in 983/1575.[86] In modern times, the text was translated from Arabic into many European languages and published innumerable times in Turkey as Eyyühe'l-Veled or Ey Oğul.[87]
A less famous Pand-nama (Book of counsel) also written in the genre of advice literature is a very late compilatory letter of an unknown author formally addressed to some ruler and falsely attributed to al-Ghazali, obviously because it consists of many fragments borrowed mostly from various parts of the Kimiya-yi saʿadat.[88]
Influence
During his life, Al-Ghazali wrote over 70 books on science, Islamic reasoning and Sufism.
The staple of his religious philosophy was arguing that the creator was the center point of all human life that played a direct role in all world affairs. Al-Ghazali's influence was not limited to Islam, but in fact his works were widely circulated among Christian and Hebrew scholars and philosophers. Some of the more notable philosophers and scholars in the west include David Hume, Dante, and St. Thomas Aquinas. Moses Ben Maimon, a Jewish theologian was deeply interested and vested in the works of al-Ghazali. One of the more notable achievements of Ghazali were his writing and reform of education that laid the path of Islamic Education from the 12th to the 19th centuries. Al-Ghazali's works were heavily relied upon by Islamic mathematicians and astronomers such as At-Tusi.[95]
Al-Ghazali was by every indication of his writings a true mystic in the Persian sense. He believed himself to be more mystical or religious than he was philosophical however, he is more widely regarded by some scholars as a leading figure of Islamic philosophy and thought. He describes his philosophical approach as a seeker of true knowledge, a deeper understanding of the philosophical and scientific, and a better understanding of mysticism and cognition.
Imam Al Ghazali mainly chose to keep his legacy in his books so he wrote more than 70 books in his career. It is said about his book "Ihyaullumuddin: The Revival of the Religious Sciences" that, if one has no Shaykh Then he has Ihya.[98] Through his writing he still influences islamic scholars and community. Prominent scholars like Shaykh Hamza Yusuf, Shaykh Ibrahim Osi Efa, Dr. Abdul Hakim Murad (Timothy Winter) is greatly influenced by his teaching.. People refer to him as the "Proof of Islam".[99]
Number of works
Al-Ghazali mentioned the number of his works "more than 70" in one of his letters to
The tradition of falsely attributing works to al-Ghazali increased in the 13th century, after the dissemination of the large corpus of works by Ibn Arabi.[63]
Bibliographies have been published by
Pages | Content |
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1–72 | works definitely written by al-Ghazali |
73–95 | works of doubtful attribution |
96–127 | works which are almost certainly not those of al-Ghazali |
128–224 | are the names of the Chapters or Sections of al-Ghazali's books that are mistakenly thought by him |
225–273 | books written by other authors on al-Ghazali's works |
274–389 | books of other unknown scholars/writers regarding al-Ghazali's life and personality |
389–457 | the name of the manuscripts of al-Ghazali's works in different libraries of the world: |
Title | Description | Type |
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al-Munqidh min al-dalal | Rescuer from Error | Theology |
Hujjat al-Haq | Proof of the Truth | Theology |
al-Iqtisād fī al-iʿtiqad | The Moderation in Belief | Theology |
Iljām al-Awām an Ilm il-Kalām | Bridling the Common Folk Away From the Science of Theological Speculation | Theology |
al-maqsad al-asna fi sharah asma' Allahu al-husna | The best means in explaining God's Beautiful Names | Theology |
Jawahir al-Qur'an wa duraruh | Jewels of the Qur'an and Its Pearls | Theology |
Faysal al-tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa-l-zandaqa | The Criterion of Distinction between Islam and Clandestine Unbelief | Theology |
al-radd al-jamil li-ilahiyyat ‘Isa bi-sarih al-Injil | The Excellent Refutation of the Divinity of Jesus through the Text of the Gospel | Theology |
Mishkat al-Anwar[101] | The Niche for Lights, a commentary on the Verse of Light
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Theology |
Tafsir al-yaqut al-ta'wil | Theology | |
Mizan al-'amal | Criterion of Action | Tasawwuf |
Ihya'e Ulum-ed'Deen
|
The Revival of the Religious Sciences | Tasawwuf |
Bidayat al-hidayah | The Beginning of Guidance | Tasawwuf |
Kimiya-yi sa'ādat | The Alchemy of Happiness [a résumé of Ihya'ul ulum, in Persian] | Tasawwuf |
Nasihat al-muluk | Counseling Kings in Persian | Tasawwuf |
al-Munqidh min al-dalal | Rescuer from Error | Tasawwuf |
Minhaj al-'Abidin | Methodology for the Worshipers | Tasawwuf |
Fada'ih al-Batiniyya | The Infamies of the Esotericists, a refutation of esoteric Sufism in general and Isma'ili doctrines in particular | Tasawwuf |
Maqasid al falasifa | Aims of the Philosophers written in the beginning of his life, in favour of philosophy and presenting the basic theories in Philosophy, mostly influenced by Avicenna's works
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Philosophy |
Tahāfut al-Falāsifah | Ibn Rushd wrote his famous refutation Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence )
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Philosophy |
Miyar al-Ilm fi fan al-Mantiq | Criterion of Knowledge in the Art of Logic | Philosophy |
Mihak al-Nazar fi al-mantiq | Touchstone of Reasoning in Logic | Philosophy |
al-Qistas al-mustaqim | The Correct Balance | Philosophy |
Fatawy al-Ghazali | Verdicts of al-Ghazali | Jurisprudence |
al-wajiz fi fiqh al-imam al-shafi’i
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The Condensed in Imam Shafi’i’s Jurisprudence
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Jurisprudence |
Kitab tahzib al-Isul | Prunning on Legal Theory | Jurisprudence |
al-Mustasfa fi 'ilm al-isul
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The Clarified in Legal Theory
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Jurisprudence |
Asas al-Qiyas | Foundation of Analogical reasoning | Jurisprudence |
The Jerusalem Tract [102] | Jurisprudence | |
Sources:[103][104]: 29 |
Economic philosophy
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. (April 2023) |
Al-Ghazali's economic philosophy was primarily influenced by his Islamic beliefs. He argued that the importance of economic activity lay both in its benefit to society, as well being necessary for salvation.[105]
He established three goals of economic activity that he believed were part of one's religious obligation: "achievement of self-sufficiency for one's survival; provision for the well-being of one's progeny; and provision for assisting those in economic need."[105] He argued that subsistence living, or living in a way that provides the basic necessities for only one's family, would not be an acceptable practice to be held by the general population because of the detrimental results that he believed that would bring upon the economy, but he acknowledged that some people may choose to live the subsistence lifestyle at their own will for the sake of their personal religious journey. Conversely, he discouraged people from purchasing or possessing excessive material items, suggesting that any additional money earned could be given to provide for the poor.[105]
Al-Ghazali believed that the imposition of income equality in society should not be a necessity. Instead, he advocated for individuals to be guided by the "spirit of Islamic brotherhood," encouraging them to willingly share their wealth. However, he acknowledged that this ideal isn't universally practiced. According to him, earned wealth can serve two potential purposes. The first is for the good of oneself, which includes maintaining one's own health and that of their family, as well as extending care to others and engaging in actions beneficial to the Islamic community. The other is what al-Ghazali would consider misuse, spending it selfishly on extravagant or unnecessary material items.[105]
In terms of trade, al-Ghazali discussed the necessity of exchanging goods across close cities as well as larger borders because it allows more goods, which may be necessary and not yet available, to be accessible to more people in various locations. He recognized the necessity of trade and its overall beneficial effect on the economy, but making money in that way might not be considered the most virtuous in his beliefs. He did not support people taking "excessive" profits from their trade sales.[105]
Reception of work
According to
As an example, the Islamic scholar al-Safadi stated:
Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad, the Proof of Islam, Ornament of the Faith, Abu Hamid al-Tusi (al-Ghazali) the Shafi'ite jurist, was in his later years without rival.[107]
and the jurist, al-Yafi'i stated:
He was called The Proof of Islam and undoubtedly was worthy of the name, absolutely trustworthy (in respect of the Faith) How many an epitome (has he given) us setting forth the basic principles of religion: how much that was repetitive has he summarised, and epitomised what was lengthy. How many a simple explanation has he given us of what was hard to fathom, with brief elucidation and clear solution of knotty problems. He used moderation, being quiet but decisive in silencing an adversary, though his words were like a sharp sword-thrust in refuting a slanderer and protecting the high-road of guidance.[108]
The Shafi'i jurist al-Subki stated:
"If there had been a prophet after Muhammad, al-Ghazali would have been the man".[109][110]
Also a widely considered
Ibn Rushd (Averroes), a rationalist, famously responded that "to say that philosophers are incoherent is itself to make an incoherent statement."[citation needed] Rushd's book, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, attempted to refute al-Ghazali's views, but the work was not well received in the Muslim community.[112]
According to historian Firas Alkhateeb, "When one reads Imam al-Ghazali's works at a very superficial level, one can easily misunderstand what he is saying as anti-scientific in general. The truth, however, is that al-Ghazali's only warning to students is to not fully accept all the beliefs and ideas of a scholar simply because of his achievements in mathematics and science. By issuing such a warning, al-Ghazali is in fact protecting the scientific enterprise for future generations by insulating it from being mixed with theoretical philosophy that could eventually dilute science itself to a field based on conjecture and reasoning alone."[113]
Al-Ghazali has been seen by Orientalist scholars as causing a decline in scientific advancement in Islam, because of his refutation of the new philosophies of his time. He purportedly saw danger in the statements made by philosophers that suggested that God was not all-knowing or even non-existent, which strongly contradicted his conservative Islamic belief.
See also
- List of Ash'aris and Maturidis
- List of Muslim theologians
- List of Sufis
- Mujaddid
- Nasîhatnâme
References
Notes
Citations
- ^ ISBN 0786419547.
- ^ ISBN 978-0415966900.
- ISBN 978-0415966917.
- ISBN 978-0691134840.
Ghazali (ca. 1058–1111) Abu Hamid Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Ghazali al-Tusi (the "Proof of Islam") is the most renowned Sunni theologian of the Seljuq period (1038–1194).
- ^ ISBN 978-1851686636.
- ISBN 978-0415326391.
- S2CID 163151146.
- ^ a b "Imam Ghazali's Teachers: al-Ghazali's Website". www.ghazali.org.
- ^ https://phm.znu.ac.ir/article_19567.html?lang=en
- ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 62.
- ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 81.
- ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 76.
- ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 77.
- ISBN 978-0-415-28113-3.
- ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 75.
- ^ ISBN 1405178442
- ^ a b "The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. June 30, 2005.
- ^ ISBN 978-9462092754.
- ^ "Muslim Philosophy". Islamic Contributions to Science & Math, netmuslims.com. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29.
- ^ ISBN 1441142002
- ^ a b Sayf Din al-Amidi Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, September 18, 2019
- ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 71.
- ^ a b Ayn al-`Ilm wa Zayn al-Hilm, Muqadimmah, Page 1
- ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 74.
- ^ "Ghazali". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
- ^ "Al-Ghazali". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
- ^ "Ghazālī, al-". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
- ^ a b c Böwering, Gerhard. "ḠAZĀLĪ". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
- ^ a b The Spirit of Creativity: Basic Mechanisms of Creative Achievements "Persian polymath Al-Ghazali published several treatises...."
- ^ a b http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ghazalie.pdf « Al-Ghazali was born in A.D. 1058 (A.H. 450) in or near the city of Tus in Khurasan to a Persian family of modest means... »
- ^ a b The Ethics of Suicide: Historical Sources "A native of Khorassan, of Persian origin, the Muslim theologian, sufi mystic, and philosopher Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali is one of the great figures of Islamic religious thought...."
- ISBN 9780231175357.
Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (ca.1058-1111) was a Persian antirationalist philosopher and theologian.
- ISBN 9780815626091.
- ^ "Ghazali, al-". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
- ^ ISBN 978-0810861619.
- ^ a b c d e f Griffel, Frank (2016). "Al-Ghazali". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
- ^ a b c William Montgomery Watt, Al-Ghazali: The Muslim Intellectual, p. 180. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1963.
- ISSN 2289-8204.
- ^ ISBN 978-0231519991.
- ^ a b Dhahabi, Siyar, 4.566
- ^ a b Oxtoby, Willard Gurdon (1996). Oxford University Press. p. 421.
{{cite book}}
: Missing or empty|title=
(help) - ISBN 9781539995036.
- ISBN 0941532607
- ^ George Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges, p27
- ^ JSTOR24739088.
- ^ "Al-Ghazali's Turning Point: On the Writings on his Personal Crisis". www.ghazali.org. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
- ISBN 978-0691134840 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 9780195356564.
Ghazali Revival ihya.
- ^ ISBN 9780195331622.
- ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
A man of Persian descent, Ḡazālī (variant name Ḡazzālī; Med. Latin form, Algazel; honorific title, Ḥojjat-al-Eslām"The Proof of Islam"), was born at Ṭūs in Khorasan in 450/1058 and grew up as an orphan together with his younger brother Aḥmad Ḡazālī (d. 520/1126; q.v.).
- ^ Rahman, Yucel (2016). The Mujaddid of His Age.
- ^ Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World". In Boyle, J. A. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 48.
- JSTOR 4299634.
- S2CID 163151146.
- ^ Abū Ḥāmid b. Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Muḥammad al-Ghazzālī, "al-Munqidh min al-Ḍalāl" in Majmūʿa Rasāʾil al-Imām al-Ghazzālī. Ed. by Aḥmad Shams al-Dīn (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1988), 29, 60
- ^ Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego" in The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 1953, No. 34, 13. (presentation, the British Psycho-Analytical Society, London, May 2nd, 1951)
- ^ Ovidio Salazar, Al-Ghazali: The Alchemist of Happiness (2004; London: Matmedia Productions, 2006), DVD.
- ^ Nicholson, Reynold Alleyne. (1966). "A literary history of the Arabs." London: Cambridge University Press. p. 382.
- ISBN 978-0415966917.
- ISBN 978-0691134840.
Ghazali (ca. 1058–1111) Abu Hamid Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Ghazali al-Tusi (the "Proof of Islam") is the most renowned Sunni theologian of the Seljuq period (1038–1194).
- ^ a b R.M. Frank, Al-Ghazali and the Ashʿarite School, Duke University Press, London 1994
- ISBN 978-0415326391.
- ^ Encyclopedia Iranica.
- ISBN 978-0691134840 – via Google Books.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-84904-977-1 – via Google Books.
- ISBN 978-1579107871.
- ISBN 9780099523277 – via Google Books.
- ^ For al-Ghazali's argument see The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Translated by Michael E. Marmura. 2nd ed, Provo Utah, 2000, pp.116-7.
- ^ For Ibn Rushd's response, see Khalid, Muhammad A., ed. (2005). Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings. Cambridge UK. p. 162.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Many orientalists argue that Ghazali's Tahafut is responsible for the age of decline in science in the Muslim World. This is their key thesis as they attempt to explain the scientific and intellectual history of the Islamic world. It seems to be the most widely accepted view on the matter not only in the Western world but in the Muslim world as well. George Saliba, a Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at Columbia University who specializes in the development of astronomy within Islamic civilization, calls this view the "classical narrative" (Saliba, 2007)".
- ^ Aydin, Nuh. "Did al-Ghazali kill the science in Islam?". Archived from the original on 2015-04-30. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
- ^ Hasan, Hasan (9 February 2012). "How the decline of Muslim scientific thought still haunts". The National.
- ISBN 9780195356564.
Ghazali Revival ihya.
- ISBN 0786429046
- ISBN 0941532607.
- ^ a b Translated into English by Mohammed Asim Bilal and available at archive.org
- ^ a b c d Winter, T.J (2016). Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires. The Islamic Text Society.
- ISBN 978-0805781670.
- ISBN 9780199691647.
- ^ "SANJAR, Aḥmad b. Malekšāh". 11 August 2020.
- ^ Makatib-i farsi-yi Ghazali ba nam-i Faza’il al-anam min rasa’il Ḥujjat al-Islam, ed. ʿAbbas Iqbal Ashtiyani, Tehran, 1954, pp. 11-12
- ^ Makatib-i farsi-yi Ghazali ba nam-i Faza’il al-anam min rasa’il Hujjat al-Islam, ed. ʿAbbas Iqbal Ashtiyani, Tehran, 1954, pp. 13-23, 83-85
- ^ Majmuʿa-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-e Ghazali, ed. A. Mujahid, Tehran, 1979, 2nd ed., Tehran, 1991, pp. 191-238
- ^ Namaha-yi ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani, ed. ʿAli Naqi Monzawi and ʿAfif ʿUsayran, 2 vols., Tehran, 1983, II, p.103, no 73
- ^ George Henry Scherer, Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha’l-walad, Ph.D. diss., Chicago University, 1930; Beirut, 1933, p. 27
- ^ Hilmi Ziya Ülken, Gazali’nin bazi eserlerinin Türkçe tercümeleri. Les traductions en Turc de certains livres d’al-Ghazali, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 9/1, 1961, p. 61
- ^ Günaydin, Gazâlî tercümeleri: Osmanli devri ve 1928 sonrasi için bir bibliyografya denemesi, Dîvân: Disiplinlerarası Çalışmalar Dergisi 16, 2011, pp. 70-73
- ^ "Kimiā-Ye Saʿādat". 29 June 2021.
- ^ Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 65–78.
- ISBN 9780815626091.
- ^ "Ghazali, al-". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
- ISBN 9780231175357.
Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (ca.1058-1111) was a Persian antirationalist philosopher and theologian.
- .
- ^ ISBN 9780809136193 – via Google Books.
- ^ "AL-Ghazali" (PDF). Quarterly Review of Comparative Education. 23: 3–4.
- ISBN 9789400716902.
- ^ "Ghazâlî had successfully introduced logic into the madrasa (though it was studied in other venues as well (Endress 2006)). What happened to it after this time was the result of the activities of logicians much more gifted than Ghazâlî. This period has tentatively been called the Golden Age of Arabic philosophy (Gutas 2002). It is in this period, and especially in the thirteenth century, that the major changes in the coverage and structure of Avicennan logic were introduced; these changes were mainly introduced in free-standing treatises on logic. It has been observed that the thirteenth century was the time that "doing logic in Arabic was thoroughly disconnected from textual exegesis, perhaps more so than at any time before or since" (El-Rouayheb 2010b: 48–49). Many of the major textbooks for teaching logic in later centuries come from this period. [...] For all his historical importance in the process of introducing logic into the madrasa, the logic that Ghazâlî defended was too dilute to be recognizably Farabian or Avicennan." Street, Tony (July 23, 2008). "Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
- ^ Story of Imam Ghazali (r), retrieved 2023-12-29
- ^ Who is Imam Al Ghazali (r) | The proof of Islam | Shaykh Hamza Yusuf, retrieved 2023-12-29
- ^ A. Badawi, Mu'allafat al-Ghazali, 2 vols. (Cairo, 1961).
- S2CID 188876050.
- ISBN 978-0887281433. Archived from the originalon 2018-03-02. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
- ^ "The Mishkat al-Anwar of al-Ghazzali Index". www.ghazali.org.
- ISBN 978-0887281433. Archived from the originalon 2018-03-02. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
- ^ ISBN 978-9960-06-574-8.
- ISSN 2289-8204.
- ^ al-Wafa bi'l wafayat, p. 274 - 277. Also see Tabaqat al-Shafiyya, subki, 4, 101.
- ^ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali, The Mystic, p. 47
- ^ Tabaqat al-Shafi’iyyah al-Kubra, Cairo, 1324/1906, Vol. IV, p. 101
- ^ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali, The Mystic, p. 48
- ^ al-Dhahabi. Siyar A'laam al-Nubala'. Vol. 9. Lebanon: Dar al-Hadith. p. 323.
- ISBN 9780316092791 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b "Al-Ghazali and the Revival of Islamic Scholarship". 22 May 2013. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
- ^ Jamil Ragep (February 2008). "When did Islamic science die (and who cares)?" (PDF). Viewpoint. No. 85. Retrieved 2023-03-23.
- ISBN 9780262195577 – via Google Books.
- ^ a b Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error[permanent dead link], p. 9, §41.
- ^ Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error[permanent dead link], § 59, p. 13.
- ^ Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error, § 36, p. 8.
- ISBN 978-0-415-28113-3.
- ^ Muslim Philosophy Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine, Islamic Contributions to Science & Math, netmuslims.com
Sources
- Haque, Amber (2004). "Psychology from Islamic perspective: contributions of early Muslim scholars and challenges to contemporary Muslim psychologists". S2CID 38740431.
- PMID 7876530.
- Abd Rahman, Mohd Rosmizi Bin; Yucel, Salih (2016). "The Mujaddid of His Age: Al-Ghazali and His Inner Spiritual Journey". Umran. 3 (2). .
- Saritoprak, Zeki (2018). "Al-Ghazali". Islamic Spirituality: Theology and Practice for the Modern World. ISBN 978-1-4725-7204-2.
- Parrott, Justin (2017). "Al-Ghazali and the Golden Rule: Ethics of Reciprocity in the Works of a Muslim Sage". Journal of Religious & Theological Information. 16 (2): 68–78. S2CID 171854695.
- Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of al-Ghazālī". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1): 65–78. JSTOR 25182038.
Further reading
- Macdonald, Duncan B. (1899). "The life of al-Ghazzali", in Journal of the American Oriental Society. 20, p. 122 sqq.
- Laoust, H: La politique de Gazali, Paris 1970
- Campanini, M.: Al-Ghazzali, in Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman, History of Islamic Philosophy 1996
- Campanini, Massimo, Ghazali, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610691776
- Watt, W. M.: Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali, Edinburgh 1963
- Zwemer, S. M. A Moslem Seeker after God, New York 1920
- Nakamura, K. "Al-Ghazali", Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Dougan, A. The Glimpse: The Inner teaching of Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazzali's Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche for Lights) by ISBN 0-9597566-6-3
- A comparison between the philosophy of Ghazali and the doi:10.35632/ajis.v10i2.2505. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2010-07-04.
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.
External links
- Translation of the Ihya ulum al-din (The Revival of Religious Sciences), Vol 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Vol.4
- Griffel, Frank. "Al-Ghazali". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Full French text of the Deliverance from error, Préservatif contre l'erreur
- Al-Ghazali website
- Ghazali Series page at the Islamic Texts Society
- Ghazali Book Series from Fons Vitae non-profit publishers
- Works by Al-Ghazali at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- A detailed biography on Imam Ghazzali (450-505H) الغزَّالِي Archived 2020-09-02 at the Wayback Machine
- Works by or about Al-Ghazali at Internet Archive
- Ghazali and Islamic reform
- Ghazali and the Revival of Islamic Scholarship
- Full text of Incoherence of the Philosophers, from Al-Ghazali website
- Short commentary on The Alchemy of Happiness
- The Alchemy of Happiness, by Mohammed Al-Ghazzali, the Mohammedan Philosopher, trans. Henry A. Homes (Albany, N.Y.: Munsell, 1873). See original text in The Online Library of Liberty.
- "Al-Ghazali Contra Aristotle: An Unforeseen Overture to Science In Eleventh-Century Baghdad". Richard P. Aulie. PSCF 45. March 1994. pp. 26–46.
- Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali, in Intellectual Encounters
- (in French) Profession de Foi de l'Imam Al Ghazali