Alawi dynasty

It has been suggested that this article should be split into multiple articles. (discuss) (April 2024)

Part of a series on the
History of Morocco
Prehistory Acheulean Mousterian Aterian Iberomaurusian Capsian
Classical to Late Antiquity (8th century BC – 7th century AD) Carthaginian Roman Mauretania Mauretania Tingitana Exarchate of Africa
Early Islamic (8th–10th century AD) Muslim conquest Umayyad Caliphate Berber Revolt Emirate of Nekor Emirate of Sijilmasa Barghwata confederacy Idrisid dynasty
Territorial fragmentation (10th–11th century AD) Caliphate of Córdoba Fatimid Caliphate Ifranids Miknasas Maghrawas
Empire (beginning 11th century AD) Almoravids Almohads Marinids Wattasids Saadis Alawis other political entities Zawiya Dila'iya Principality of Debdou Republic of Salé
Decline (beginning 19th century AD) Franco-Moroccan War Anglo-Moroccan Treaty of 1856 Hispano-Moroccan War Protégé system Treaty of Wad Ras Treaty of Madrid Tangier Crisis Treaty of Algeciras Agadir Crisis Hafidiya Bombardment of Casablanca (1907) French conquest of Morocco
Protectorate (1912–56) Treaty of Fez French protectorate Spanish protectorate French Conquest Zaian War Rif War Tangier Protocol Tangier International Zone Opposition to European control Revolution of the King and the People
Modern (1956–present) Ifni War Sand War Moroccanization in 1972 Moulay Bouazza plot Years of lead Madrid Accords Green March Western Sahara conflict 2011–2012 protests Hirak Rif Movement Abraham Accords
Related topics Morocco in the 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s History by topic Jewish Economic Military Postal Imperial cities
Morocco portal  History portal
v t e

Historical Arab states and dynasties
Ancient Arab states Kingdom of Qedar 800 BC–300 BC Kingdom of Lihyan 600 BC–100 BC Nabataean Kingdom 400 BC–106 AD Kingdom of Osroene 132 BC–244 AD Emesene Dynasty 64 BC–300s AD Kingdom of Hatra 100s–241 AD Tanukhids 196–1100 AD Ghassanids 220–638 AD Salihids 300s–500s AD Lakhmids 300s–602 AD Kingdom of Kinda 450 AD–550 AD
Arab empires and caliphates Rashidun 632–661 Umayyads 661–750 Abbasids 750–1258 Fatimids 909–1171
Eastern dynasties Shirvanshah 861–1538 Alavids 864–928 Hamdanids 890–1004 Rawadids 955–1071 Mazyadids 961–1150 Jarrahids 970–1107 Uqaylids 990–1096 Numayrids 990–1081 Mirdasids 1024–1080 Munqidhites 1025–1157 Ma'nids 1517–1697 Turabays 1480–1677 Harfushs 1517–1865 Shihabs 1697–1842
Western dynasties and caliphates Senussids 1837–1969
Arabian Peninsula Mutawakkilite Kingdom 1926–1970
East Africa Tippu Tip's State 1860–1887
Current monarchies Umm al-Quwain) 1775–present Al Khalifa (Bahrain) 1783–present Al Nuaimi (Ajman) 1810–present Al Maktoum (Dubai) 1833–present Al Thani (Qatar) 1868–present Al Sharqi (Fujairah) 1900–present Hashemites (Jordan) 1921–present
v t e

Royal family of Morocco
The King The Crown Prince Princess Lalla Khadija Princess Lalla Latifa Princess Lalla Meryem Princess Lalla Asma Princess Lalla Hasna Prince Moulay Rachid Princess Lalla Oum Kalthum Prince Moulay Ahmed Prince Moulay Abdeslam Princess Lalla Lamia Prince Moulay Hicham Princess Lalla Zineb Prince Moulay Ismail Princess Lalla Joumala Alaoui Sharif Moulay Abdallah Alaoui Sharif Moulay Youssef Alaoui
v t e

The 'Alawi dynasty (

The state and empire ruled by the 'Alawis was also known in some periods as the "Sharifian Empire" (الإيالة الشريفة in Arabic) or Empire Chérifien in French according to the Treaty of Fes). This name was still in official usage until 1956 (when Morocco regained its independence from colonial rule), and is also used by historians to refer to the preceding Saadian state, which was also ruled by a sharifian dynasty.^{[19][20][21][22]}

History

Origins

The 'Alawis were a family of

Little is known of 'Alawi history prior to the 17th century.[2] In the early 15th century they appear to have had a reputation as holy warriors, but did not yet have a political status. This was the example of one family member, Ali al-Sharif (not to be confused with the later 'Alawi by the same name below), who participated in battles against the Portuguese and Spanish in Ceuta (Sebta) and Tangier and who was also invited by the Nasrids of Granada to fight against Castile on the Iberian Peninsula.^[3]: 228 By the 17th century, however, they had evidently become the main leaders of the Tafilalt.^[2]

Their status as shurafa (descendants of Muhammad) was part of the reason for their success, as in this era many communities in Morocco increasingly saw sharifian status as the best claim to political legitimacy. The Saadian dynasty, which ruled Morocco in the 16th century and early 17th century prior to the rise of the 'Alawis, was also a sharifian dynasty and played an important role in establishing this model of political-religious legitimacy.^{[23][2][1][3]: 228}

Rise to power

The family's rise to power took place in the context of early-to-mid-17th century Morocco, when the power of the Saadian sultans of Marrakesh was in serious decline and multiple regional factions fought for control of the country. Among the most powerful of these factions were the Dala'iyya (also spelled Dila'iyya or Dilaites), a federation of Amazigh (Berbers) in the Middle Atlas who increasingly dominated central Morocco at this time, reaching the peak of their power in the 1640s. Another, was 'Ali Abu Hassun al-Semlali (or Abu Hassun), who had become leader of the Sous valley since 1614.^{[3]: 222, 228} When Abu Hassun extended his control to the Tafilalt region in 1631, the Dala'iyya in turn sent forces to enforce their own influence in the area. The local inhabitants chose as their leader the 'Alawi family head, Muhammad al-Sharif – known as Mawlay Ali al-Sharif,^[17] Mawlay al-Sharif, or Muhammad I^[1] – recognizing him as Sultan.^{[3]: 222, 228} Mawlay al-Sharif led an attack against Abu Hassun's garrison at Tabu'samt in 1635 or 1636 (1045 AH) but failed to expel them. Abu Hassun forced him to go into exile to the Sous valley, but also treated him well; among other things, Abu Hassun gifted him a slave concubine who later gave birth to one of his sons, Mawlay Isma'il.^{[3]: 228 [23]: 224}

While their father remained in exile, al-Sharif's sons took up the struggle. His son

Despite some territorial setbacks, the 'Alawis' influence slowly grew, partly thanks to their continued alliance with certain Arab tribes of the region. In June 1650, the leaders of Fez (or more specifically Fes el-Bali, the old city), with the support of the local Arab tribes, rejected the authority of the Dala'iyya and invited Sidi Mohammed to join them. Soon after he arrived, however, the Dala'iyya army approached the city and the local leaders, realizing they did not have enough strength to oppose them, stopped their uprising and asked Sidi Mohammed to leave.^[3]: 229

Mawlay Sharif died in 1659, and Sidi Mohammed was once again proclaimed sovereign. However, this provoked a succession clash between Sidi Mohammed and one of his younger half-brothers,

By this time, the Dala'iyya's realm, which once extended over Fez and most of central Morocco, had largely receded to their original home in the Middle Atlas. Al-Rashid was left in control of the 'Alawi forces and in less than a decade he managed to extend 'Alawi control over almost all of Morocco, reuniting the country under a new sharifian dynasty.

He also moved the capital from Fez to

Isma'il also sought to project renewed Moroccan power abroad and in former territories. Following the decline of central rule in the late Saadian period earlier that century, the

In 1662 Portuguese-controlled Tangier was transferred to English control as part of Catherine of Braganza's dowry to Charles II. Mawlay Isma'il besieged the city unsuccessfully in 1679, but this pressure, along with attacks from local Muslim mujahidin (also known as the "Army of the Rif"^[32]), persuaded the English to evacuate Tangier in 1684. Mawlay Isma'il immediately claimed the city and sponsored its Muslim resettlement, but granted local authority to 'Ali ar-Rifi, the governor of Tetouan who had played an active part in besieging the city and became the chieftain of northern Morocco around this time.^{[33][32][3]: 239} Isma'il also conquered Spanish-controlled Mahdiya in 1681, Al-Ara'ish (Larache) in 1689, and Asilah in 1691.^{[3][23]: 226} Moreover, he sponsored Moroccan pirates which preyed on European merchant ships. Despite this, he also allowed Europeans merchants to trade inside Morocco, but he strictly regulated their activities and forced them to negotiate with his government for permission, allowing him to efficiently collect taxes on trade. Isma'il also allowed European countries, often through the proxy of Spanish Franciscan friars, to negotiate ransoms for the release of Christians captured by pirates or in battle. He also pursued relations with Louis XIV of France starting in 1682, hoping to secure an alliance against Spain, but France was less interested in this idea and relations eventually collapsed after 1718.^{[3]: 232–233}

Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons

After Mawlay Isma'il's death, Morocco was plunged into one of its greatest periods of turmoil between 1727 and 1757, with Isma'il's sons fighting for control of the sultanate and never holding onto power for long.^[1] Isma'il had left hundreds of sons who were theoretically eligible for the throne.^[3] Conflict between his sons was compounded by rebellions against the heavily taxing and autocratic government which Isma'il had previously imposed.^[2] Furthermore, the 'Abid of Isma'il's reign came to wield enormous power and were able to install or depose sultans according to their interests throughout this period, though they also had to compete with the guich tribes and some of the Amazigh (Berber) tribes.^{[21][3]: 237–238} Meknes remained the capital and the scene of most of these political changes, but Fez was also a key player.^{[3]: 237–238} Ahmad adh-Dhahabi was the first to succeed his father but was immediately contested and ruled twice only briefly before his death in 1729, with his brother Abd al-Malik ruling in between his reigns in 1728. After this his brother Abdallah ruled for most of the period between 1729 and 1757 but was deposed four times.^{[21][1][3]: 237–238} Abdallah was initially supported by the 'Abid but eventually made enemies of them after 1733. Eventually he was able to gain advantage over them by forming an alliance with the Amazigh tribe of Ait Idrasin, the Oudaya guich tribe, and the leaders of Fez (whom he alienated early on but later reconciled with).^[3]: 238 This alliance steadily wore down the 'Abid's power and paved the way for their submission in the later part of the 18th century.^{[3]: 238–240}

In this period, the north of Morocco also became virtually independent of the central government, being ruled instead by Ahmad ibn 'Ali ar-Rifi, the son of 'Ali al-Hamami ar-Rifi whom Mawlay Isma'il had granted local authority in the region of Tangier.^{[32][3]: 239} Ahmad al-Hamami ar-Rifi used Tangier as the capital of his territory and profited from an arms trade with the English at Gibraltar, with whom he also established diplomatic relations. Sultan Ahmad al-Dahabi had tried to appoint his own governor in Tetouan to undermine Ar-Rifi's power in 1727, but without success. Ahmad ar-Rifi was initially uninterested in the politics playing out in Meknes, but became embroiled due to an alliance he formed with al-Mustadi', one of the ephemeral sultans installed by the 'Abid installed in May 1738. When Al-Mustadi' was in turn deposed in January 1740 to accommodate Mawlay Abdallah's return to power, Ar-Rifi opposed the latter and invaded Fez in 1741. Mawlay Abdallah's alliance of factions was able to finally defeat and kill him on the battlefield in 1743, and soon after the sultan's authority was re-established along the coastal cities of Morocco.^[3]: 239 In 1647, Sultan Mawlay Abdallah strategically established his two sons Khalifa (Viceroy) in politically important cities. His eldest Mawlay Ahmed was appointed Khalifa of Rabat^[34] and his youngest Sidi Mohammed, Khalifa of Marrakesh.^[34] His eldest son would die before him in 1750.^[35] After 9 years of uninterrupted reign, Mawlay Abdallah died at Dar Dbibegh November 10, 1757.^[35] His only surviving son, Sidi Mohammed, succeeded him.

Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah

Order and control was firmly re-established only under Abdallah's son, Sidi Mohammed ibn Abdallah (Mohammed III), who became Sultan in 1757 after a decade as viceroy in Marrakesh.^[36] Many of the 'Abid had by then deserted their contingents and joined the common population of the country, and Sidi Mohammed III was able to reorganize those who remained into his own elite military corps.^{[3]: 239–240} The Oudaya, who had supported his father but had been a burden on the population of Fez where they lived, became the main challenge to the new sultan's power. In 1760 he was forced to march with an army to Fez where he arrested their leaders and destroyed their contingents, killing many of their soldiers. In the aftermath the sultan created a new, much smaller, Oudaya regiment which was given new commanders and garrisoned in Meknes instead.^[3]: 240 Later, in 1775, he tried to distance the 'Abid from power by ordering their transfer from Meknes to Tangier in the north. The 'Abid resisted him and attempted to proclaim his son Yazid (the later Mawlay Yazid) as sultan, but the latter soon changed his mind and was reconciled with his father. After this, Sidi Mohammed III dispersed the 'Abid contingents to garrisons in Tangier, Larache, Rabat, Marrakesh and the Sous, where they continued to cause trouble until 1782. These disturbances were compounded by drought and severe famine between 1776 and 1782 and an outbreak of plague in 1779–1780, which killed many Moroccans and forced the sultan to import wheat, reduce taxes, and distribute food and funds to locals and tribal leaders in order to alleviate the suffering. By now, however, the improved authority of the sultan allowed the central government to weather these difficulties and crises.^[3]: 240

Sidi Mohammed ibn Abdallah maintained the peace in part through a relatively more decentralized regime and lighter taxes, relying instead on greater trade with Europe to make up the revenues.^[2] In line with this policy, in 1764 he founded Essaouira, a new port city through which he funnelled European trade with Marrakesh.^[17][37] The last Portuguese outpost on the Moroccan coast, Mazagan (al-Jadida today), was taken by Morocco in 1729, leaving only the Spanish enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla as the remaining European outposts in Morocco.^[1][21] Muhammad also signed a Treaty of Friendship with the United States in 1787 after becoming the first head of state to recognize the new country.^[38] He was interested in scholarly pursuits and also cultivated a productive relationship with the ulama, or Muslim religious scholars, who supported some of his initiatives and reforms.^[3]: 241

Sidi Mohammed's opening of Morocco to international trade was not welcomed by some, however. After his death in 1790, his son and successor Mawlay Yazid ruled with more xenophobia and violence, punished Jewish communities, and launched an ill-fated attack against Spanish-held Ceuta in 1792 in which he was mortally wounded.^[17] After his death, he was succeeded by his brother Suleyman (or Mawlay Slimane), though the latter had to defeat two more brothers who contested the throne: Maslama in the north and Hisham in Marrakesh to the south.^[17] Suleyman brought trade with Europe nearly to a halt.^[23]: 260 Although less violent and bigoted than Yazid, was still portrayed by European sources as xenophobic.^[17] Some of this lack of engagement with Europe was likely a consequence of the Napoleonic Wars, during which England blockaded parts of Europe and both France and Spain threatened Morocco into not taking any side.^[17] After 1811 Suleyman also pushed a fundamentalist Wahhabist ideology at home and attempted to suppress local Sufi orders and brotherhoods, in spite of their popularity and despite his own membership in the Tijaniyya order.^[23]: 260

European influence and confrontation in the 19th century

Suleyman's successor,

In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions. Sultan Hassan I called for the Madrid Conference of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of the protégé system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries.^[39]

Crisis and installation of French and Spanish Protectorates

After Sultan

Under colonial rule the institution of the sultan was formally preserved as part of a French policy of indirect rule, or at least the appearance of indirect rule. Under the French Protectorate, the 'Alawi sultans still had some prerogatives such as the power to sign or veto dahirs (decrees). In the Spanish zone, a Khalifa ("deputy") was appointed who acted as a representative of the sultan. In practice, however, the sultan was a puppet of the new regime and many parts of the population saw the dynasty as collaborators with the French. The French colonial administration was headed by the French resident-general, the first of whom was Hubert Lyautey, who enacted many of the policies that set the tone for France's colonial regime in Morocco.^[39][46]

Mawlay Youssef died unexpectedly in 1927 and his youngest son, Muhammad (Mohammed ben Youssef or Mohammed V), was acclaimed as the new sultan, at the age of 18. By the guidance of the French regime, he had spent most of his life growing up in relative isolation inside the royal palace in Meknes and Rabat. These restrictions on his interactions with the outside world continued in large part even after he ascended to the throne. However, over the course of his reign he became increasingly associated with the Moroccan nationalist movement, eventually becoming a strong symbol in the cause for independence. The nationalists, for their part, and in contrast with other anti-colonial movements like the Salafis, saw the sultan as a potentially useful tool in the struggle against French rule.^[46]

Some of Mohammed V's initial interactions with nationalists came during the crisis caused by the so-called "

The exile of the sultan did not alleviate French difficulties in Morocco, and an insurgency broke out which targeted both the regime and its collaborators with boycott campaigns as well as acts of violence. Several assassination attempts were made against the new puppet sultan, Mohammed Ben 'Arafa, and one of the boycott campaigns was aimed at the country's mosques due to prayers being said in the new sultan's name. Eventually, with the decolonialization process under way in Tunisia and the independence war in Algeria, the French agreed to negotiate Morocco's independence at a conference on August 23, 1955. By October 1 Mohammed Ben 'Arafa had abdicated and later that month even Thami el-Glaoui supported Mohammed V's return. The sultan landed at Rabat-Salé Airport at 11:42 am on November 16, greeted by cheering crowds.^[46] The French-Moroccan Declaration of Independence was formally signed on March 2, 1956, and Tangier was reintegrated to Morocco later that year. In 1957 Mohammed V adopted the official title of "King", which has since been used by his successors, Hassan II and Mohammed VI.^[39][46]

From 1957 to present day

At independence, the Moroccan makhzen (royal government) remained underdeveloped and urgent reforms were needed to resolve problems arising from decades of colonial rule.^[39]: 154 Political friction existed between the nationalist Istiqlal Party, which pushed for more democratic institutions, and the king, Mohammed V, who now hesitated on endorsing radical political changes. By the end of the decade in 1960, the Istiqlal Party was weakened by splinter factions and the growing number of political parties were unable to act together as an effective counterbalance to the king. A formal constitution also remained lacking. As a result, the monarch emerged as the main pillar of political stability in the state and there was a revival of absolutism under royal rule.^{[39]: 155–161} Mohammed V died in 1961 and was succeeded by his son, Hassan II.

Hassan was soon compelled to promulgate a

Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI, the current reigning king. The new monarch's reign began with promises of further liberalization and reform; however, the extent of political reforms has been limited and popular engagement with electoral politics has been inconsistent.[39]^{: 221, 228–230 [50]} Another constitutional reform was passed by a referendum in 2011 in response to protests inside the country, in the wider context of the Arab Spring.^{[51][39]: 234–236} Today, the 'Alawis remain the only monarchy in North Africa.^[9] They officially rule in a parliamentary constitutional monarchy,^[9][10][11] but authoritarian and absolutist characteristics are still noted by scholars and observers, with effective power largely remaining in the hands of the king,^[12][10][14] a situation that has been compared to the pattern of Hashemite monarchy in Jordan.^[14][52]

List of 'Alawi rulers

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

Sultans of the Tafilalt and early expansion:

• Sharif ibn Ali (1631–1635)
• Muhammad ibn Sharif (1635–1664)
• Al-Rashid (1664–1668)

After capture of Marrakesh in 1668, Sultans of Morocco:

• Al-Rashid (1668–1672)
• Mawlay Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727)
• Abu'l Abbas Ahmad II
  (1727–1728) (first time)
• Abdalmalik (1728)
• Abu'l Abbas Ahmad II
  (1728–1729) (second time)
• Abdallah (1729–1734) (first time)
• Ali (1734–1736)
• Abdallah (1736) (second time)
• Mohammed II (1736–1738)
• Al-Mustadi (1738–1740) (first time)
• Abdallah (1740–1741) (third time)
• Zin al-Abidin (1741)
• Abdallah (1741–1742) (fourth time)
• Al-Mustadi (1742–1743) (second time)
• Abdallah (1743–1747) (fifth time)
• Al-Mustadi (1747–1748) (third time)
• Abdallah (1748–1757) (sixth time)
• Mohammed III (1757–1790)
• Yazid (1790–1792)
• Mulay Suleiman (1792–1822)
• Abderrahmane
  (1822–1859)
• Mohammed IV
  (1859–1873)
• Hassan I (1873–1894)
• Abdelaziz (1894–1908)
• Abdelhafid
  (1908–1912)

Under the

• Yusef (1912–1927)
• King Mohammed V (1927–1961), changed title of ruler from Sultan to King in 1957. Deposed and exiled to Corsica and Madagascar (1953–1955).
• Mohammed Ben Aarafa, installed by France (1953–1955)

From Independence (1955 onwards):

• King Mohammed V (1955–1961)
• King Hassan II (1961–1999)
• King Mohammed VI (1999–present)

Timeline

Family tree

Moulay Sharif

Mohammed I

Ismail

Rachid

Ahmad

Abdul Malek

Abdallah II

Mohammed II

Ali

Al-Mustadi'

Zin al-Abidin

Mohammed III

Al-Yazid

Hisham

Sulayman

Abd al-Rahman ibn Hicham

Mohammed IV

Hassan I

Aarafa

Abd al-Aziz

Abd al-Hafid

Youssef

Tahar

Mohammed Ben Aarafa

Mohammed V 3° spouse Lalla Bahia

2° spouse Lalla Abla bint Tahar

Lalla Latifa Hammou

Lalla Malika

Lalla Nuzha

Lalla Aicha

Abdellah

Rachid

Hicham

Ismail

Crown Prince Hassan

Lalla Khadija

See also

• Conflicts between the Regency of Algiers and Morocco
• History of Morocco
• Order of Ouissam Alaouite
• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
• Hashemites, Jordan's ruling family that also claims descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad
• Succession to the Moroccan throne
• List of rulers of Morocco

References