Albert Camus
Albert Camus | |
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University of Algiers | |
Notable work | The Stranger / The Outsider The Myth of Sisyphus The Rebel The Plague |
Spouses |
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Awards | Nobel Prize in Literature (1957) |
Region | Western philosophy |
School |
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Main interests | Ethics, human nature, justice, politics, philosophy of suicide |
Notable ideas | Absurdism |
Signature | |
Albert Camus (
Camus was born in
Philosophically, Camus' views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as
Life and death
Early years and education
Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in a working-class neighbourhood in Mondovi (present-day
Under the influence of his teacher Louis Germain, Camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious lyceum (secondary school) near Algiers.[8] Louis Germain immediately noticed his lively intelligence and his desire to learn. In middle school he gave him free lessons to prepare him for the 1924 scholarship competition, despite the fact that his grandmother had a destiny in store for him as a manual worker, so that he could immediately contribute to the maintenance of the family. Camus would maintain great gratitude and affection towards Louis Germain throughout his life, to whom he would dedicate his speech for accepting the Nobel Prize. Having received the news of the awarding of the prize, he wrote:
But when I heard the news, my first thought, after my mother, was of you. Without you, without the affectionate hand you extended to the small poor child that I was, without your teaching and example, none of all this would have happened.[9]
In a letter dated 30 April 1959, Germain lovingly reciprocated the warm feelings towards his former pupil, calling him "my little Camus".[10][11]
In 1930, at the age of 17, he was diagnosed with
In 1933, Camus enrolled at the
Camus played goalkeeper for the Racing Universitaire d'Alger junior team from 1928 to 1930.[15] The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to him enormously.[16] In match reports, he was often praised for playing with passion and courage. Any football ambitions, however, disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis.[15] Camus drew parallels among football, human existence, morality, and personal identity. For him, the simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and Church.[15]
Formative years
In 1934, aged 20, Camus was in a relationship with Simone Hié.[17] Simone had an addiction to morphine, a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains. His uncle Gustave did not approve of the relationship, but Camus married Hié to help her fight her addiction. He subsequently discovered she was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced.[12]
Camus joined the
In 1938, Camus began working for the leftist newspaper
World War II, Resistance and Combat
Soon after Camus moved to Paris, the outbreak of World War II began to affect France. Camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he had once had tuberculosis. As the Germans were marching towards Paris, Camus fled. He was laid off from Paris-Soir and ended up in Lyon, where he married pianist and mathematician Francine Faure on 3 December 1940.[21] Camus and Faure moved back to Algeria (Oran), where he taught in primary schools.[22] Because of his tuberculosis, he moved to the French Alps on medical advice. There he began writing his second cycle of works, this time dealing with revolt — a novel, La Peste (The Plague), and a play, Le Malentendu (The Misunderstanding). By 1943 he was known because of his earlier work. He returned to Paris, where he met and became friends with Jean-Paul Sartre. He also became part of a circle of intellectuals including Simone de Beauvoir, André Breton, and others. Among them was the actress María Casares, who would later have an affair with Camus.[23]
Camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the Germans during the
Post–World War II
External videos | |
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Presentation by Olivier Todd on Albert Camus: A Life, December 15, 1997, C-SPAN |
After the War, Camus lived in Paris with Faure, who gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, in 1945.
Camus was a strong supporter of
Camus had numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress María Casares, with whom he had extensive correspondence.[32] Faure did not take this affair lightly. She had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s. Camus, who felt guilty, withdrew from public life and was slightly depressed for some time.[33]
In 1957, Camus received the news that he was to be awarded the
During these years, he published posthumously the works of the philosopher Simone Weil, in the series "Espoir" ("Hope") which he had founded for Éditions Gallimard. Weil had great influence on his philosophy,[36][37] since he saw her writings as an "antidote" to nihilism.[38][39] Camus described her as "the only great spirit of our times".[40]
Death
Camus died on 4 January 1960 at the age of 46, in a car accident near
144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled Le premier Homme (The First Man) were found in the wreckage. Camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in Algeria would be his finest work.[27] Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Vaucluse, France, where he had lived.[42] His friend Sartre read a eulogy, paying tribute to Camus's heroic "stubborn humanism".[43] William Faulkner wrote his obituary, saying, "When the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death is hoping to do: I was here."[44]
Literary career
Camus's first publication was a play called Révolte dans les Asturies (Revolt in the Asturias) written with three friends in May 1936. The subject was the 1934 revolt by Spanish miners that was brutally suppressed by the Spanish government resulting in 1,500 to 2,000 deaths. In May 1937 he wrote his first book, L'Envers et l'Endroit (Betwixt and Between, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side). Both were published by Edmond Charlot's small publishing house.[45]
Camus separated his work into three cycles. Each cycle consisted of a novel, an essay, and a play. The first was the cycle of the absurd consisting of L'Étranger, Le Mythe de Sysiphe, and Caligula. The second was the cycle of the revolt which included La Peste (The Plague), L'Homme révolté (The Rebel), and Les Justes (The Just Assassins). The third, the cycle of the love, consisted of Nemesis. Each cycle was an examination of a theme with the use of a pagan myth and including biblical motifs.[46]
The books in the first cycle were published between 1942 and 1944, but the theme was conceived earlier, at least as far back as 1936.[47] With this cycle, Camus aims to pose a question on the human condition, discuss the world as an absurd place, and warn humanity of the consequences of totalitarianism.[48]
Camus began his work on the second cycle while he was in Algeria, in the last months of 1942, just as the Germans were reaching North Africa.[49] In the second cycle, Camus used Prometheus, who is depicted as a revolutionary humanist, to highlight the nuances between revolution and rebellion. He analyses various aspects of rebellion, its metaphysics, its connection to politics, and examines it under the lens of modernity, of historicity and the absence of a God.[50]
After receiving the Nobel Prize, Camus gathered, clarified, and published his pacifist leaning views at Actuelles III: Chronique algérienne 1939–1958 (Algerian Chronicles). He then decided to distance himself from the Algerian War as he found the mental burden too heavy. He turned to theatre and the third cycle which was about love and the goddess Nemesis, the Greek and Roman goddess of Revenge.[34]
Two of Camus's works were published posthumously. The first entitled La mort heureuse (A Happy Death) (1971) is a novel that was written between 1936 and 1938. It features a character named Patrice Mersault, comparable to The Stranger's Meursault. There is scholarly debate about the relationship between the two books. The second was an unfinished novel, Le Premier homme (The First Man) (1994), which Camus was writing before he died. It was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria and its publication in 1994 sparked a widespread reconsideration of Camus's allegedly unrepentant colonialism.[51]
Years | Pagan myth | Biblical motif | Novel | Plays |
---|---|---|---|---|
1937–42 | Sisyphus | Alienation, exile | The Stranger (L'Étranger) | Caligula, The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) |
1943–52 | Prometheus | Rebellion | The Plague (La Peste) | The State of Siege (L'État de siège) The Just (Les Justes) |
1952–58 | Guilt, the fall; exile & the kingdom; John the Baptist, Christ |
The Fall (La Chute) | Adaptations of The Possessed (Dostoevsky); Faulkner's Requiem for a Nun | |
1958– | Nemesis | The Kingdom | The First Man (Le Premier Homme) |
Political stance
Camus was a
Camus was also strongly critical of
Active in the
Camus had
Philosophy professor David Sherman considers Camus an
The anarchist André Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting of the Cercle des Étudiants Anarchistes ("Anarchist Student Circle") in 1948 as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought. Camus wrote for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire (The Libertarian), La Révolution prolétarienne (The Proletarian Revolution), and Solidaridad Obrera ("Workers' Solidarity"), the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) ("National Confederation of Labor").[64]
Camus kept a neutral stance during the
He was sharply critical of the
Along with
Role in Algeria
Born in Algeria to French parents, Camus was familiar with the institutional racism of France against Arabs and Berbers, but he was not part of a rich elite. He lived in very poor conditions as a child but was a citizen of France and as such was entitled to citizens' rights; members of the country's Arab and Berber majority were not.[73]
Camus was a vocal advocate of the "new Mediterranean Culture". This was his vision of embracing the multi-ethnicity of the Algerian people, in opposition to "Latiny", a popular pro-fascist and antisemitic ideology among other pieds-noirs - or French or Europeans born in Algeria. For Camus, this vision encapsulated the Hellenic humanism which survived among ordinary people around the Mediterranean Sea.
In 1945, following the Sétif and Guelma massacre after Arab revolts against French mistreatment, Camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony. He wrote a series of articles reporting on conditions, and advocating for French reforms and concessions to the demands of the Algerian people.[77]
When the Algerian War began in 1954, Camus was confronted with a moral dilemma. He identified with the pieds-noirs such as his own parents and defended the French government's actions against the revolt. He argued the Algerian uprising was an integral part of the "new
Camus once said that the troubles in Algeria "affected him as others feel pain in their lungs."[82]
Philosophy
Existentialism
Even though Camus is mostly connected to absurdism,[83] he is routinely categorized as an existentialist, a term he rejected on several occasions.[84]
Camus himself said his philosophical origins lay in ancient Greek philosophy, Nietzsche, and 17th-century moralists, whereas existentialism arose from 19th- and early 20th-century philosophy such as
On the other hand, Camus focused most of his philosophy around existential questions. The absurdity of life, the inevitable ending (death) is highlighted in his acts. His belief was that the absurd—life being void of meaning, or man's inability to know that meaning if it were to exist—was something that man should embrace. His anti-Christianity, his commitment to individual moral freedom and responsibility are only a few of the similarities with other existential writers.[90] More importantly, Camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism: the problem of suicide. He wrote: "There is only one really serious philosophical question, and that is suicide."[91] Camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a solution to the absurdity of life.[53]
Absurdism
Many existentialist writers have addressed the Absurd, each with their own interpretation of what it is and what makes it important.
Camus follows Sartre's definition of the Absurd: "That which is meaningless. Thus man's existence is absurd because his contingency finds no external justification".[92] The Absurd is created because man, who is placed in an unintelligent universe, realises that human values are not founded on a solid external component; or as Camus himself explains, the Absurd is the result of the "confrontation between human need and the unreasonable silence of the world."[95] Even though absurdity is inescapable, Camus does not drift towards nihilism. But the realization of absurdity leads to the question: Why should someone continue to live? Suicide is an option that Camus firmly dismisses as the renunciation of human values and freedom. Rather, he proposes we accept that absurdity is a part of our lives and live with it.[96]
The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the Revue Libre in 1943, the second in the Cahiers de Libération in 1944, and the third in the newspaper Libertés, in 1945. The four letters were published as Lettres à un ami allemand (Letters to a German Friend) in 1945, and were included in the collection Resistance, Rebellion, and Death.
Camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a "philosopher of the absurd". He showed less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing Le Mythe de Sisyphe. To distinguish his ideas, scholars sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to "Camus's Absurd".[97]
Revolt
Camus articulated the case for revolting against any kind of oppression, injustice, or whatever disrespects the human condition. He is cautious enough, however, to set the limits on the rebellion.[98] L'Homme révolté (The Rebel) explains in detail his thoughts on the issue. There, he builds upon the absurd (described in The Myth of Sisyphus) but goes further. In the introduction, where he examines the metaphysics of rebellion, he concludes with the phrase "I revolt, therefore we exist" implying the recognition of a common human condition.[99] Camus also delineates the difference between revolution and rebellion and notices that history has shown that the rebel's revolution might easily end up as an oppressive regime; he therefore places importance on the morals accompanying the revolution.[100] Camus poses a crucial question: Is it possible for humans to act in an ethical and meaningful manner, in a silent universe? According to him the answer is yes, as the experience and awareness of the Absurd creates the moral values and also sets the limits of our actions.[101] Camus separates the modern form of rebellion into two modes. First, there is the metaphysical rebellion, which is "the movement by which man protests against his condition and against the whole of creation." The other mode, historical rebellion, is the attempt to materialize the abstract spirit of metaphysical rebellion and change the world. In this attempt, the rebel must balance between the evil of the world and the intrinsic evil which every revolt carries, and not cause any unjustifiable suffering.[102]
Legacy
Camus's novels and philosophical essays are still influential. After his death, interest in Camus followed the rise (and diminution) of the
Although Camus has been linked to anti-Soviet communism, reaching as far as anarcho-syndicalism, some
American heavy metal band Avenged Sevenfold stated that their album Life Is But a Dream... was inspired by the work of Camus.[106]
Albert Camus also served as the inspiration for the Aquarius Gold Saint Camus in the classic anime and manga Saint Seiya.[107]
Tributes
- In Tipasa (Algeria), inside the Roman ruins, facing the sea and Mount Chenoua, a stele was erected in 1961 in honor of Albert Camus with this phrase in French extracted from his work Noces à Tipasa: "I understand here what is called glory: the right to love beyond measure " (« Je comprends ici ce qu'on appelle gloire : le droit d'aimer sans mesure. »).[108]
- The French Post published a stamp with his effigy on 26 June 1967.[109]
Works
The works of Albert Camus include:[110]
Novels
- A Happy Death (La Mort heureuse) (written 1936–38, published 1971)
- The Stranger (L'Étranger, often translated as The Outsider. An alternate meaning of "l'étranger" is "foreigner" ) (1942)
- The Plague (La Peste) (1947)
- The Fall (La Chute) (1956)
- The First Man (Le premier homme) (incomplete, published 1994)
Short stories
- Exile and the Kingdom (L'exil et le royaume) (collection, 1957), containing the following short stories:
- "The Adulterous Woman" (La Femme adultère)
- "The Renegade or a Confused Spirit" (Le Renégat ou un esprit confus)
- "The Silent Men" (Les Muets)
- "The Guest" (L'Hôte)
- "Jonas, or the Artist at Work" (Jonas, ou l'artiste au travail)
- "The Growing Stone" (La Pierre qui pousse)
Academic theses
- Christian Metaphysics and Neoplatonism (Métaphysique chrétienne et néoplatonisme) (1935): the thesis that enabled Camus to teach in secondary schools in France
Non-fiction
- Betwixt and Between (L'envers et l'endroit, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side) (collection, 1937)
- Nuptials(Noces) (1938)
- The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe) (1942)
- The Rebel (L'Homme révolté) (1951)
- Algerian Chronicles (Chroniques algériennes) (1958, first English translation published 2013)
- Resistance, Rebellion, and Death (collection, 1961)
- Notebooks 1935–1942 (Carnets, mai 1935 — fevrier 1942) (1962)
- Notebooks 1942–1951 (Carnets II: janvier 1942-mars 1951) (1965)
- Lyrical and Critical Essays (collection, 1968)
- American Journals (Journaux de voyage) (1978)
- Notebooks 1951–1959 (2008). Published as Carnets Tome III: Mars 1951 – December 1959 (1989)
- Correspondence (1944–1959) The correspondence of Albert Camus and María Casares, with a preface by his daughter, Catherine Camus (2017)
Plays
- Caligula (performed 1945, written 1938)
- The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) (1944)
- The State of Siege (L'État de Siège) (1948)
- The Just Assassins (Les Justes) (1949)
- Requiem for a Nun (Requiem pour une nonne, adapted from William Faulkner's novel by the same name) (1956)
- Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel Demons) (1959)
Essays
- The Crisis of Man (Lecture at Columbia University) (28 March 1946)
- Neither Victims nor Executioners (Series of essays in Combat) (1946)
- Why Spain? (Essay for the theatrical play L'Etat de Siège) (1948)
- Summer (L'Été) (1954)[30]
- Reflections on the Guillotine (Réflexions sur la guillotine) (Extended essay, 1957)[111]
- Create Dangerously (Essay on Realism and Artistic Creation, lecture at the University of Uppsala in Sweden) (1957)[112]
References
Footnotes
- ISBN 978-1-84465-216-7.
- ^ "Camus". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ Leinen, Jo; Bummel, Andreas. "A Democratic World Parliament" (PDF). democracywithoutborders.com. pp. 1, 2. Retrieved 12 January 2024.
- ^ Carroll 2013, p. 50.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 10; Hayden 2016, p. 7; Lottman 1979, p. 11; Carroll 2007, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b c Sherman 2009, p. 11.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 8.
- ^ Camus, Albert. "Albert Camus Wins the Nobel Prize & Sends a Letter of Gratitude to His Elementary School Teacher (1957)". Retrieved 7 January 2024.
- ^ "I embrace you with all my heart – Letters of Note". lettersofnote.com. 7 November 2013. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
- ^ "Lettre de Monsieur Germain à Albert Camus" [Letter of Mister Germain to Albert Camus]. compagnieaffable.com (in French). 4 October 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2024.
- ^ a b c Hayden 2016, p. 9.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 11: Camus's thesis was titled "Rapports de l'hellénisme et du christianisme à travers les oeuvres de Plotin et de saint Augustin" ("Relationship of Greek and Christian Thought in Plotinus and St. Augustine") for his diplôme d'études supérieures (roughly equivalent to an MA thesis).
- ^ Simpson 2019, Background and Influences.
- ^ a b c Clarke 2009, p. 488.
- ^ Lattal 1995.
- ^ Cohn 1986, p. 30; Hayden 2016.
- ^ Todd 2000, pp. 249–250; Sherman 2009, p. 12.
- ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 12–13; Sherman 2009, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 13.
- ^ Hayden 2016; Sherman 2009, p. 13.
- ^ Hayden 2016; Sherman 2009, p. 23.
- ^ Carroll 2013, p. 278.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 15.
- ^ a b Willsher 2011.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 17.
- ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b c d Hayden 2016, p. 18.
- ^ Todd 2000, pp. 249–250; Schaffner 2006, p. 107.
- ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 14–17; Zaretsky 2018.
- ^ a b Sherman 2009, p. 17.
- ^ a b Hayden 2016, p. 19.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 18.
- ^
Jeanyves GUÉRIN, Guy BASSET (2013). Dictionnaire Albert Camus. Groupe Robert Laffont. ISBN 978-2-221-14017-8.
- S2CID 242044336.
- ^ Stefan Skrimshire, 2006, A Political Theology of the Absurd? Albert Camus and Simone Weil on Social Transformation, Literature and Theology, Volume 20, Issue 3, September 2006, Pages 286–300
- ^ Rik Van Nieuwenhove, 2005, Albert Camus, Simone Weil and the Absurd, Irish Theological Quarterly, 70, 343
- ^
John Hellman (1983). Simone Weil: An Introduction to Her Thought. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-88920-121-7.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 19; Simpson 2019, Life.
- ^ Bloom 2009, p. 52.
- ^ Simpson 2019, Life.
- ^ Jensen, Morten Høi (1 January 2021). "Without God or Reason". Commonweal. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 11.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, pp. 41–44.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 23.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 41.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 14.
- ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 45–47.
- ^ Carroll 2007.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 44.
- ^ a b c Aronson 2017, Introduction.
- ^ Foley 2008, pp. 75–76.
- ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 185–87.
- ^ Bernstein 1997.
- ^ a b Bronner 2009, p. 74.
- ^ Dunwoodie 1993, p. 86; Marshall 1993, p. 445.
- ^ Dunwoodie 1993, p. 87.
- ^ a b Moses, Michael (2022). "Liberty's Claims on Man and Citizen in the Life and Writings of Albert Camus". Institute for Humane Studies. Archived from the original on 7 December 2021.
- ^ Simpson, David. "Albert Camus". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 185.
- ^ Nicholson 1971, p. 14.
- ^ Dunwoodie 1993, pp. 87–87: See also appendix p 97; Hayden 2016, p. 18.
- ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 17–18 & 188; Cohn 1986, pp. 30 & 38.
- ^ Scialabba, George (April 2013). "Resistance, Rebellion, and Writing". Bookforum. Retrieved 8 August 2021.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 191.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 19; Simpson 2019; Marshall 1993, p. 584.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 87.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 73 & 85.
- ^ Einstein, Albert; Nathan, Otto; Norden, Heinz (1968). Einstein on peace. Internet Archive. New York, Schocken Books. pp. 539, 670, 676.
- ^ "[Carta] 1950 oct. 12, Genève, [Suiza] [a] Gabriela Mistral, Santiago, Chile [manuscrito] Gerry Kraus". BND: Archivo del Escritor. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
- ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 141–143.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 145.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 356.
- ^ Foley 2008, pp. 150–151.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 322.
- ^ Foley 2008, p. 161.
- ^ Amin 2021, pp. 31–32.
- ^ Carroll 2007, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 9.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 3.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 3; Sherman 2009, p. 3.
- ^ Foley 2008, pp. 1–2; Sharpe 2015, p. 29.
- ^ Foley 2008, pp. 2.
- ^ Foley 2008, p. 3; Sherman 2009, p. 3.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 4; Simpson 2019, Existentialism.
- ^ Simpson 2019, Existentialism.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, pp. 5–6; Simpson 2019, Existentialism.
- ^ "You cannot give coherence to murder if you refuse it to suicide. A spirit penetrated by the idea of the absurd undoubtedly admits the murder of fatality, but would not be able to accept the murder of reasoning. In comparison, murder and suicide are one and the same thing, which must be taken or left together." L'Homme revolté [The Rebel] (in French). Paris: Gallimard. 1951. p. 17.
- ^ a b Foley 2008, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 23.
- ^ Sherman 2009, p. 8.
- ^ Foley 2008, p. 6.
- ^ Foley 2008, p. 7-10.
- ^ Curtis 1972, p. 335-348.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 18; Simpson 2019, Revolt.
- ^ Foley 2008, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Foley 2008, pp. 56–58.
- ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Hayden 2016, pp. 50–55.
- ^ Sherman 2009, pp. 207–208.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, pp. 241–242.
- ^ Zaretsky 2013, pp. 3–4; Sherman 2009, p. 208.
- ^ "AVENGED SEVENFOLD Announces 'Life Is But a Dream...' Album, Shares 'Nobody' Music Video". Blabbermouth. 14 March 2023.
- ^ "Aquarius Camus: 5 Facts+ All you Need to Know". Retrieved 19 October 2023.
- ^ "Au sujet de la stèle de Camus dans les ruines de Tipaza".
- ^ "La Poste".
- ^ Hughes 2007, p. xvii.
- ^ Hayden 2016, p. 86.
- ^ Sharpe 2015, p. 20.
Sources
- Amin, Nasser (2021). "The Colonial Politics of the Plague: Reading Camus in 2020". Journal of Contemporary Development & Management Studies. 9 Spring 2021: 28–38. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
- Aronson, Ronald (2004). Camus and Sartre: The Story of a Friendship and the Quarrel that Ended it. ISBN 978-0-22602-796-8.
- Aronson, Ronald (2017). "Albert Camus". In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- Bernstein, Richard (19 December 1997). "BOOKS OF THE TIMES; Camus as a Principled Rebel Among Poseurs". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 May 2006.
- ISBN 978-1-4381-1515-3.
- ISBN 978-0-226-07567-9.
- Carroll, David (4 May 2007). Albert Camus the Algerian: Colonialism, Terrorism, Justice. ISBN 978-0-231-51176-6.
- Carroll, Sean B. (2013). Brave Genius: A Scientist, a Philosopher, and Their Daring Adventures from the French Resistance to the Nobel Prize. New York: Crown. ISBN 978-0-307-95234-9.
- Clarke, Liam (2009). "Football as a metaphor: learning to cope with life, manage emotional illness and maintain health through to recovery". PMID 19538606.
- Cohn, Robert Greer (1986). "The True Camus". JSTOR 393607.
- Curtis, Jerry L. (1 August 1972). "The absurdity of rebellion". S2CID 144571561.
- Dunwoodie, Peter (1993). "Albert Camus and the Anarchist Alternative". Australian Journal of French Studies. 30 (1). Liverpool University Press: 84–104. ISSN 0004-9468.
- Foley, John (2008). Albert Camus: From the Absurd to Revolt. ISBN 978-0-7735-3467-4.
- Hayden, Patrick (9 February 2016). Camus and the Challenge of Political Thought: Between Despair and Hope. ISBN 978-1-137-52583-3.
- Hughes, Edward J. (26 April 2007). The Cambridge Companion to Camus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-82734-8.
- Lattal, Ashley (1995). "Albert Camus". Users.muohio.edu. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ISBN 978-1-870845-12-0.
- ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1.
- S2CID 154840020. Archived from the originalon 4 May 2019. Retrieved 4 May 2019.
- Schaffner, Alain (2006). Agnès Spiquel (ed.). Albert Camus: l'exigence morale : hommage à Jacqueline Lévi-Valensi (L'esprit des lettres) (in French). Editions Le Manuscrit. ISBN 978-2-7481-7101-3.
- Sharpe, Matthew (3 September 2015). Camus, Philosophe: To Return to our Beginnings. ISBN 978-90-04-30234-1.
- Sherman, David (30 January 2009). Camus. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-0328-5.
- Simpson, David (2019). "Albert Camus (1913–1960)". ISSN 2161-0002.
- ISBN 978-0-7867-0739-3.
- Willsher, Kim (7 August 2011). "Albert Camus might have been killed by the KGB for criticising the Soviet Union, claims newspaper". The Guardian.
- Zaretsky, Robert (2018). "'No Longer the Person I Was': The Dazzling Correspondence of Albert Camus and Maria Casarès". Los Angeles Review of Books.
- Zaretsky, Robert (7 November 2013). Life Worth Living. ISBN 978-0-674-72837-0.
Further reading
Selected biographies
- Thody, Philip Malcolm Waller (1957). Albert Camus: A Study of His Work. Hamish Hamilton.
- Gallimard.
- Parker, Emmett (1965). Albert Camus: The Artist in the Arena. ISBN 978-0-299-03554-9.
- King, Adele (1964). Albert Camus. Grove Press.
- McCarthy, Patrick. Camus: A Critical Study of His Life and Work. Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-10603-7.
- Sprintzen, David (February 1991). Camus: A Critical Examination. ISBN 978-0-87722-827-1.
- ISBN 978-1-349-22003-8.
- ISBN 978-1-4381-1515-3.
- Pierre Louis Rey (2006). Camus: l'homme révolté. Gallimard. ISBN 978-2-07-031828-5.
- ISBN 978-0-8021-1889-9.
External links
- Albert Camus. Selective and Cumulative Bibliography Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Gay-Crosier Camus collection at University of Florida Library
- Albert Camus Society UK
- Works by Albert Camus at Faded Page (Canada)
- Albert Camus in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Albert Camus on Nobelprize.org