Albrecht Dürer
Albrecht Dürer | |
---|---|
Prado Museum | |
Born | |
Died | 6 April 1528 Nuremberg, Holy Roman Empire | (aged 56)
Nationality | German |
Other names | Adalbert Ajtósi, Albrecht Durer, Albrecht Duerer |
Known for | |
Movement | High Renaissance |
Spouse |
Agnes Frey (m. 1494) |
Signature | |
Albrecht Dürer (
Dürer's vast body of work includes
Dürer's introduction of
Biography
Early life (1471–1490)
Dürer was born on 21 May 1471, the third child and second son of Albrecht Dürer the Elder and Barbara Holper, who married in 1467 and had eighteen children together.
Dürer's godfather
Because Dürer left autobiographical writings and was widely known by his mid-twenties, his life is well documented in several sources. After a few years of school, Dürer learned the basics of goldsmithing and drawing from his father. Though his father wanted him to continue his training as a goldsmith, he showed such a precocious talent in drawing that he started as an apprentice to
Wanderjahre and marriage (1490–1494)
After completing his apprenticeship, Dürer followed the common German custom of taking
Very soon after his return to Nuremberg, on 7 July 1494, at the age of 23, Dürer was married to
First journey to Italy (1494–1495)
Within three months of his marriage, Dürer left for Italy, alone, perhaps stimulated by an outbreak of plague in Nuremberg. He made watercolour sketches as he traveled over the Alps. Some have survived and others may be deduced from accurate landscapes of real places in his later work, for example his engraving Nemesis.
In Italy, he went to Venice to study its more advanced artistic world.
Return to Nuremberg (1495–1505)
On his return to Nuremberg in 1495, Dürer opened his own workshop (being married was a requirement for this). Over the next five years, his style increasingly integrated Italian influences into underlying Northern forms. Arguably his best works in the first years of the workshop were his woodcut prints, mostly religious, but including secular scenes such as The Men's Bath (c. 1496). These were larger and more finely cut than the great majority of German woodcuts hitherto, and far more complex and balanced in composition.
It is now thought unlikely that Dürer cut any of the woodblocks himself; this task would have been performed by a specialist craftsman. However, his training in Wolgemut's studio, which made many carved and painted altarpieces and both designed and cut woodblocks for woodcut, evidently gave him great understanding of what the technique could be made to produce, and how to work with block cutters. Dürer either drew his design directly onto the woodblock itself, or glued a paper drawing to the block. Either way, his drawings were destroyed during the cutting of the block.
His series of sixteen designs for the Apocalypse
During the same period Dürer trained himself in the difficult art of using the burin to make engravings. It is possible he had begun learning this skill during his early training with his father, as it was also an essential skill of the goldsmith. In 1496 he executed the Prodigal Son, which the Italian Renaissance art historian Giorgio Vasari singled out for praise some decades later, noting its Germanic quality. He was soon producing some spectacular and original images, notably Nemesis (1502), The Sea Monster (1498), and Saint Eustace (c. 1501), with a highly detailed landscape background and animals. His landscapes of this period, such as Pond in the Woods and Willow Mill, are quite different from his earlier watercolours. There is a much greater emphasis on capturing atmosphere, rather than depicting topography. He made a number of Madonnas, single religious figures, and small scenes with comic peasant figures. Prints are highly portable and these works made Dürer famous throughout the main artistic centres of Europe within a very few years.[10]
The Venetian artist Jacopo de' Barbari, whom Dürer had met in Venice, visited Nuremberg in 1500, and Dürer said that he learned much about the new developments in perspective, anatomy, and proportion from him.[20] De' Barbari was unwilling to explain everything he knew, so Dürer began his own studies, which would become a lifelong preoccupation. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, leading to the famous engraving of Adam and Eve (1504), which shows his subtlety while using the burin in the texturing of flesh surfaces.[10] This is the only existing engraving signed with his full name.
Dürer created large numbers of preparatory drawings, especially for his paintings and engravings, and many survive, most famously the
Second journey to Italy (1505–1507)
In Italy, he returned to painting, at first producing a series of works executed in tempera on linen. These include portraits and altarpieces, notably, the Paumgartner altarpiece and the Adoration of the Magi. In early 1506, he returned to Venice and stayed there until the spring of 1507.[4] By this time Dürer's engravings had attained great popularity and were being copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of San Bartolomeo. This was the altar-piece known as the Adoration of the Virgin or the Feast of Rose Garlands. It includes portraits of members of Venice's German community, but shows a strong Italian influence. It was later acquired by the Emperor Rudolf II and taken to Prague.[21]
Nuremberg and the masterworks (1507–1520)
Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer returned to Nuremberg by mid-1507, remaining in Germany until 1520. His reputation had spread throughout Europe and he was on friendly terms and in communication with most of the major artists including Raphael.[n 3]
Between 1507 and 1511 Dürer worked on some of his most celebrated paintings: Adam and Eve (1507), Martyrdom of the Ten Thousand (1508, for Frederick of Saxony), Virgin with the Iris (1508), the altarpiece Assumption of the Virgin (1509, for Jacob Heller of Frankfurt), and Adoration of the Trinity (1511, for Matthaeus Landauer). During this period he also completed two woodcut series, the Great Passion and the Life of the Virgin, both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the Apocalypse series. The post-Venetian woodcuts show Dürer's development of chiaroscuro modelling effects,[23] creating a mid-tone throughout the print to which the highlights and shadows can be contrasted.
Other works from this period include the thirty-seven Little Passion woodcuts, first published in 1511, and a set of fifteen small engravings on the same theme in 1512. Complaining that painting did not make enough money to justify the time spent when compared to his prints, he produced no paintings from 1513 to 1516. In 1513 and 1514 Dürer created his three most famous
In 1515, he created his woodcut of a Rhinoceros which had arrived in Lisbon from a written description and sketch by another artist, without ever seeing the animal himself. An image of the Indian rhinoceros, the image has such force that it remains one of his best-known and was still used in some German school science text-books as late as last century.[10] In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works, including the woodblocks for the first western printed star charts in 1515[26] and portraits in tempera on linen in 1516. His only experiments with etching came in this period, producing five between 1515–1516 and a sixth in 1518; a technique he may have abandoned as unsuited to his aesthetic of methodical, classical form.[27]
Patronage of Maximilian I
From 1512,
Dürer worked with pen on the marginal images for an edition of the Emperor's printed Prayer-Book; these were quite unknown until facsimiles were published in 1808 as part of the first book published in lithography. Dürer's work on the book was halted for an unknown reason, and the decoration was continued by artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder and Hans Baldung. Dürer also made several portraits of the Emperor, including one shortly before Maximilian's death in 1519.
Maximilian was a very cash-strapped prince who sometimes failed to pay, yet turned out to be Dürer's most important patron.[28][29][30] In his court, artists and learned men were respected, which was not common at that time (later, Dürer commented that in Germany, as a non-noble, he was treated as a parasite).[31][32] Pirckheimer (who he met in 1495, before entering the service of Maximilian) was also an important personage in the court and great cultural patron, who had a strong influence on Dürer as his tutor in classical knowledge and humanistic critical methodology, as well as collaborator.[33][34] In Maximilian's court, Dürer also collaborated with a great number of other brilliant artists and scholars of the time who became his friends, like Johannes Stabius, Konrad Peutinger, Conrad Celtes, and Hans Tscherte (an imperial architect).[35][36][37][38]
Dürer manifested a strong pride in his ability, as a prince of his profession.[39] One day, the emperor, trying to show Dürer an idea, tried to sketch with the charcoal himself, but always broke it. Dürer took the charcoal from Maximilian's hand, finished the drawing and told him: "This is my scepter."[40][41][42]
In another occasion, Maximilian noticed that the ladder Dürer used was too short and unstable, thus told a noble to hold it for him. The noble refused, saying that it was beneath him to serve a non-noble. Maximilian then came to hold the ladder himself, and told the noble that he could make a noble out of a peasant any day, but he could not make an artist like Dürer out of a noble.[43][44][45]
This story and a 1849 painting depicting it by August Siegert have become relevant recently. This nineteenth-century painting shows Dürer painting a mural at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna. Apparently, this reflects a seventeenth-century "artists' legend" about the previously mentioned encounter (in which the emperor held the ladder) – that this encounter corresponds with the period Dürer was working on the Viennese murals. In 2020, during restoration work, art connoisseurs discovered a piece of handwriting now attributed to Dürer, suggesting that the Nuremberg master had actually participated in creating the murals at St. Stephen's Cathedral. In the recent 2022 Dürer exhibition in Nuremberg (in which the drawing technique is also traced and connected to Dürer's other works), the identity of the commissioner is discussed. Now the painting of Siegert (and the legend associated with it) is used as evidence to suggest that this was Maximilian. Dürer is historically recorded to have entered the emperor's service in 1511, and the mural's date is calculated to be around 1505, but it is possible they have known and worked with each other earlier than 1511.[46][47][48]
Cartographic and astronomical works
Dürer's exploration of space led to a relationship and cooperation with the court astronomer Johannes Stabius.[49] Stabius also often acted as Dürer's and Maximilian's go-between for their financial problems.[50]
In 1515 Dürer and Stabius created the first world map projected on a solid geometric sphere.[51] Also in 1515, Stabius, Dürer and the astronomer Konrad Heinfogel produced the first planispheres of both southern and northerns hemispheres, as well as the first printed celestial maps, which prompted the revival of interest in the field of uranometry throughout Europe.[52][53][54][55]
Journey to the Netherlands (1520–1521)
Maximilian's death came at a time when Dürer was concerned he was losing "my sight and freedom of hand" (perhaps caused by arthritis) and increasingly affected by the writings of Martin Luther.[56] In July 1520 Dürer made his fourth and last major journey, to renew the Imperial pension Maximilian had given him and to secure the patronage of the new emperor, Charles V, who was to be crowned at Aachen. Dürer journeyed with his wife and her maid via the Rhine to Cologne and then to Antwerp, where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in silverpoint, chalk and charcoal. In addition to attending the coronation, he visited Cologne (where he admired the painting of Stefan Lochner), Nijmegen, 's-Hertogenbosch, Bruges (where he saw Michelangelo's Madonna of Bruges), Ghent (where he admired van Eyck's Ghent altarpiece),[57] and Zeeland.
Dürer took a large stock of prints with him and wrote in his diary to whom he gave, exchanged or sold them, and for how much. This provides rare information of the monetary value placed on prints at this time. Unlike paintings, their sale was very rarely documented.
Having secured his pension, Dürer returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness, which afflicted him for the rest of his life, and greatly reduced his rate of work.[10]
Final years, Nuremberg (1521–1528)
On his return to Nuremberg, Dürer worked on a number of grand projects with religious themes, including a crucifixion scene and a Sacra conversazione, though neither was completed.[60] This may have been due in part to his declining health, but perhaps also because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on geometry and perspective, the proportions of men and horses, and fortification.
However, one consequence of this shift in emphasis was that during the last years of his life, Dürer produced comparatively little as an artist. In painting, there was only a portrait of
As for engravings, Dürer's work was restricted to portraits and illustrations for his treatise. The portraits include Cardinal-Elector
Despite complaining of his lack of a formal classical education, Dürer was greatly interested in intellectual matters and learned much from his boyhood friend
Dürer died in Nuremberg at the age of 56, leaving an estate valued at 6,874 florins – a considerable sum. He is buried in the Johannisfriedhof cemetery. His large house (purchased in 1509 from the heirs of the astronomer Bernhard Walther), where his workshop was located and where his widow lived until her death in 1539, remains a prominent Nuremberg landmark.[10]
Dürer and the Reformation
Dürer's writings suggest that he may have been sympathetic to Luther's ideas, though it is unclear if he ever left the Catholic Church. Dürer wrote of his desire to draw Luther in his diary in 1520: "And God help me that I may go to Dr. Martin Luther; thus I intend to make a portrait of him with great care and engrave him on a copper plate to create a lasting memorial of the Christian man who helped me overcome so many difficulties."[63] In a letter to Nicholas Kratzer in 1524, Dürer wrote, "because of our Christian faith we have to stand in scorn and danger, for we are reviled and called heretics". Most tellingly, Pirckheimer wrote in a letter to Johann Tscherte in 1530: "I confess that in the beginning I believed in Luther, like our Albert of blessed memory ... but as anyone can see, the situation has become worse." Dürer may even have contributed to the Nuremberg City Council's mandating Lutheran sermons and services in March 1525. Notably, Dürer had contacts with various reformers, such as Zwingli, Andreas Karlstadt, Melanchthon, Erasmus and Cornelius Grapheus from whom Dürer received Luther's Babylonian Captivity in 1520.[64] Yet Erasmus and C. Grapheus are better said to be Catholic change agents. Also, from 1525, "the year that saw the peak and collapse of the Peasants' War, the artist can be seen to distance himself somewhat from the [Lutheran] movement..."[65]
Dürer's later works have also been claimed to show
Legacy and influence
Dürer exerted a huge influence on the artists of succeeding generations, especially in printmaking, the medium through which his contemporaries mostly experienced his art, as his paintings were predominantly in private collections located in only a few cities. His success in spreading his reputation across Europe through prints was undoubtedly an inspiration for major artists such as Raphael, Titian, and Parmigianino, all of whom collaborated with printmakers to promote and distribute their work.
His engravings seem to have had an intimidating effect upon his German successors; the "Little Masters" who attempted few large engravings but continued Dürer's themes in small, rather cramped compositions. Lucas van Leyden was the only Northern European engraver to successfully continue to produce large engravings in the first third of the 16th century. The generation of Italian engravers who trained in the shadow of Dürer all either directly copied parts of his landscape backgrounds (Giulio Campagnola, Giovanni Battista Palumba, Benedetto Montagna and Cristofano Robetta), or whole prints (Marcantonio Raimondi and Agostino Veneziano). However, Dürer's influence became less dominant after 1515, when Marcantonio perfected his new engraving style, which in turn travelled over the Alps to also dominate Northern engraving.
In painting, Dürer had relatively little influence in Italy, where probably only his altarpiece in Venice was seen, and his German successors were less effective in blending German and Italian styles. His intense and self-dramatizing self-portraits have continued to have a strong influence up to the present, especially on painters in the 19th and 20th century who desired a more dramatic portrait style. Dürer has never fallen from critical favour, and there have been significant revivals of interest in his works in Germany in the Dürer Renaissance of about 1570 to 1630, in the early nineteenth century, and in German nationalism from 1870 to 1945.[10]
The
In 1993, two of Dürer's drawings – Women's Bathhouse, valued at about $10 million, and Sitting Mary With Child – along with other works of art were stolen from the National Art Museum of Azerbaijan. The drawings were later recovered.[71]
Theoretical works
In all his theoretical works, in order to communicate his theories in the German language rather than in Latin, Dürer used graphic expressions based on a vernacular, craftsmen's language. For example, "Schneckenlinie" ("snail-line") was his term for a spiral form. Thus, Dürer contributed to the expansion in German prose which Luther had begun with his translation of the Bible.[61]
Four Books on Measurement
This section needs additional citations for verification. (May 2017) |
Dürer's work on
's 'Libellus super viginti duobus elementis conicis' of 1522.The second book moves onto two-dimensional geometry, i.e. the construction of regular
Four Books on Human Proportion
Dürer's work on
Appended to the last book, however, is a self-contained essay on aesthetics, which Dürer worked on between 1512 and 1528, and it is here that we learn of his theories concerning 'ideal beauty'. Dürer rejected Alberti's concept of an objective beauty, proposing a relativist notion of beauty based on variety. Nonetheless, Dürer still believed that truth was hidden within nature, and that there were rules which ordered beauty, even though he found it difficult to define the criteria for such a code. In 1512/13 his three criteria were function ('Nutz'), naïve approval ('Wohlgefallen') and the happy medium ('Mittelmass'). However, unlike Alberti and Leonardo, Dürer was most troubled by understanding not just the abstract notions of beauty but also as to how an artist can create beautiful images. Between 1512 and the final draft in 1528, Dürer's belief developed from an understanding of human creativity as spontaneous or inspired to a concept of 'selective inward synthesis'.[61] In other words, that an artist builds on a wealth of visual experiences in order to imagine beautiful things. Dürer's belief in the abilities of a single artist over inspiration prompted him to assert that "one man may sketch something with his pen on half a sheet of paper in one day, or may cut it into a tiny piece of wood with his little iron, and it turns out to be better and more artistic than another's work at which its author labours with the utmost diligence for a whole year".[75]
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Title page of Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion showing the monogram signature of artist
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Dürer often used multiview orthographic projections.
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Dürer's study of human proportions
Book on Fortification
In 1527, Dürer also published Various Lessons on the Fortification of Cities, Castles, and Localities (Etliche Underricht zu Befestigung der Stett, Schloss und Flecken). It was printed in Nuremberg, probably by Hieronymus Andreae and reprinted in 1603 by Johan Janssenn in Arnhem. In 1535 it was also translated into Latin as On Cities, Forts, and Castles, Designed and Strengthened by Several Manners: Presented for the Most Necessary Accommodation of War (De vrbibus, arcibus, castellisque condendis, ac muniendis rationes aliquot : praesenti bellorum necessitati accommodatissimae), published by Christian Wechel (Wecheli/Wechelus) in Paris.[76]
The work is less proscriptively theoretical than his other works, and was soon overshadowed by the Italian theory of polygonal fortification (the trace italienne – see Bastion fort), though his designs seem to have had some influence in the eastern German lands and up into the Baltic region.
Fencing
Dürer created many sketches and woodcuts of soldiers and knights over the course of his life. His most significant martial works, however, were made in 1512 as part of his efforts to secure the patronage of Maximilian I. Using existing manuscripts from the Nuremberg Group as his reference, his workshop produced the extensive Οπλοδιδασκαλια sive Armorvm Tractandorvm Meditatio Alberti Dvreri ("Weapon Training, or Albrecht Dürer's Meditation on the Handling of Weapons", MS 26-232). Another manuscript based on the Nuremberg texts as well as one of Hans Talhoffer's works, the untitled Berlin Picture Book (Libr.Pict.A.83), is also thought to have originated in his workshop around this time. These sketches and watercolors show the same careful attention to detail and human proportion as Dürer's other work, and his illustrations of grappling, long sword, dagger, and
Gallery
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St Jerome in the Wilderness, 1495, oil on panel, National Gallery, London
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Detail, Haller Madonna, 1505, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
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Saint Jerome, 1521,Museu Nacional de Arte Antiga, Lisbon
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Albrecht Dürer the Elder with a Rosary, 1490, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence
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Portrait of Bernhard von Reesen, 1521, Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister, Dresden
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Portrait of Hieronymus Holzschuher, 1526,Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
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Portrait of a Man, Prado Museum, Madrid
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Nemesis, c. 1501/02
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Virgin Suckling The Child, 1503
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Man of Sorrows, 1509
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The Expulsion from Paradise, 1510
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The Scourging of Christ, c. 1511, Private collection.
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Bearing of the Cross, 1512
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Bearded Saint in a Forest, c. 1516
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Head of an Old Man, 1521
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St. Christopher, engraving, 1521
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Portrait Of Bilibald Pirkeymheir, 1524
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Innsbruck Castle Courtyard, 1494, Gouache and watercolour on paper
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Castle Segonzano, 1502, gouache and watercolour on paper
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Albertina, Vienna)
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Great Piece of Turf, 1503
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Tuft of Cowslips, 1526, National Gallery of Art
List of works
- List of paintings by Albrecht Dürer
- List of engravings by Albrecht Dürer
- List of woodcuts by Albrecht Dürer
References
Notes
- St Jerome as a frontispiece for Nicholaus Kessler's 'Epistolare beati Hieronymi'. Erwin Panofsky argues that this print combined the 'Ulmianstyle' of Koberger's 'Lives of the Saints' (1488) and that of Wolgemut's workshop. Panofsky (1945), 21
- ^ The evidence for this trip is not conclusive; the suggestion it happened is supported by Panofsky (in his Albrecht Dürer, 1943) and is accepted by a majority of scholars, including the several curators of the large 2020–22 exhibition "Dürer's Journeys", but it has been disputed by other scholars, including Katherine Crawford Luber (in her Albrecht Dürer and the Venetian Renaissance, 2005)
- ^ According to Vasari, Dürer sent Raphael a self-portrait in watercolour, and Raphael sent back multiple drawings. One is dated 1515 and has an inscription by Dürer (or one of his heirs) affirming that Raphael sent it to him. See Salmi, Mario; Becherucci, Luisa; Marabottini, Alessandro; Tempesti, Anna Forlani; Marchini, Giuseppe; Becatti, Giovanni; Castagnoli, Ferdinando; Golzio, Vincenzo (1969). The Complete Work of Raphael. New York: Reynal and Co., William Morrow and Company. pp. 278, 407. Dürer describes Giovanni Bellini as "very old, but still the best in painting".[22]
- a portrait of her.[25]
Citations
- ^ ISBN 978-1405881180
- ^ "Albrecht – Deutsch – Langenscheidt Französisch-Deutsch Wörterbuch" (in German and French). Langenscheidt. Retrieved 22 October 2018.
- ^ "Duden | Dürer | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition". Duden (in German). Retrieved 22 October 2018.
- ^ ISBN 3-11-012815-2.
- ^ Brand Philip & Anzelewsky (1978–79), 11
- ^ a b c Bartrum, 93, n. 1
- ^ a b Heaton, Mrs. Charles (1881). The Life of Albrecht Dürer of Nürnberg: With a Translation of His Letters and Journal and an Account of His Works. London: Seeley, Jackson and Halliday. pp. 29, 31–32.
- ^ "Albrecht Dürer (1471 -1528) and Hungary - Hungarian-Ottoman Wars". 4 May 2020.
- ^ Brion (1960), 16
- ^ ISBN 0-7141-2633-0
- ^ Brand Philip & Anzelewsky (1978–79), 10
- ^ Joseph Koerner, The Moment of Self-Portraiture in Renaissance Art, University of Chicago Press, 1993
- ^ Harry John Wilmot-Buxton; Edward John Poynter (1881). German, Flemish and Dutch Painting. Scribner and Welford. p. 24.
- ISBN 978-1-135-58513-6.
- ^ Brisman, Shira, Albrecht Dürer and the Epistolary Mode of Address, University of Chicago Press, 2017, p. 179
- ^ Mills, Robert, Seeing Sodomy in the Middle Ages, University Of Chicago Press, 2015, p. 332, n. 93
- ^ ISBN 0-271-01977-8.
- ^ Campbell, Angela and Raftery, Andrew. "Remaking Dürer: Investigating the Master Engravings by Masterful Engraving," Art in Print Vol. 2 No. 4 (November–December 2012).
- ^ "Johannesapokalypse in klassischen Comics".
- ^ JSTOR 1554333
- JSTOR 889418
- ^ Giovanni Bellini, The J. Paul Getty Museum
- ^ Panofsky (1945), 135
- ^ "Knight, Death, and the Devil, 1513–14". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 11 September 2020
- ISBN 90-04-18454-6
- ^ Ridpath, Ian. "Dürer's hemispheres of 1515 – the first European printed star charts". Star Tales. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023.
- ^ Cohen, Brian D (September–October 2017). "Freedom and Resistance in the Act of Engraving (or, Why Dürer Gave up on Etching)". Art in Print. Vol. 7 No. 3. Archived from the original on 11 November 2022.
- ISBN 978-1-85891-892-1. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Cust, Lionel (1905). The Engravings of Albrecht Dürer. Seeley and Company, limited. p. 66. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Brion, Marcel (1960). Dürer: His Life and Work. Tudor Publishing Company. p. 233. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Innes, Mary; Kay, Charles De (1911). Schools of Painting. G. P. Putnam's sons. p. 214. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Schäfer, Sandra (27 March 2019). "Erfolgreiche Medienarbeit für die Nachwelt". Kulturfüchsin (in German). Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-7377-3216-0. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-4773-0638-3. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Co, E. P. Goldschmidt & (1925). Rare and Valuable Books ... E.P. Goldschmidt & Company, Limited. p. 125. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-942130-00-0. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Conway, Sir William Martin; Conway, William Martin Sir; Dürer, Albrecht (1889). Literary Remains of Albrecht Dürer. University Press. pp. 26–30. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Allen, L. Jessie (1903). Albrecht Dürer. Methuen. p. 180. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Bongard, Willi; Mende, Matthias (1971). Dürer Today. Inter Nationes. p. 25. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
- ^ Headlam, Cecil (1900). The Story of Nuremberg. J. M. Dent & Company. p. 73. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Seton-Watson, Robert William (1902). Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor: Stanhope Historical Essay 1901. Constable. p. 96. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Bledsoe, Albert Taylor; Herrick, Sophia M'Ilvaine Bledsoe (1965). The Southern Review. AMS Press. p. 114. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Nüchter, Friedrich (1911). Albrecht Dürer, His Life and a Selection of His Works: With Explanatory Comments by Dr. Friedrich Nüchter. Macmillan and Company, limited. p. 22. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-1-78160-625-4. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ISBN 978-90-04-14221-3. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
- ^ Cascone, Sarah (10 January 2020). "Astounded Scholars Just Found What Appears to Be a Previously Unknown Work by Albrecht Dürer in a Church's Gift Shop". Artnet News. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ "AlbrECHT DÜRER? (2022)". museen.de. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ "Albrecht Dürer gibt weiter Rätsel auf". Mittelbayerische Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ISBN 978-0-297-86539-1. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ^ Conway, Sir William Martin; Conway, William Martin Sir; Dürer, Albrecht (1889). Literary Remains of Albrecht Dürer. University Press. p. 27. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ^ Crane 2010, p. 74.
- ISBN 978-3-7065-4951-6. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-521-80040-2. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-19-252018-0. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ISBN 978-0-8122-9555-9. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
- ^ Bartrum, 204. Quotation from a letter to the secretary of the Elector of Saxony
- ^ Borchert (2011), 101
- ^ Landau & Parshall: 350–354 and passim
- ^ Panofsky (1945), 209
- ^ Panofsky (1945), 223
- ^ a b c d Panofsky (1945)
- ^ Corine Schleif (2010), "Albrecht Dürer between Agnes Frey and Willibald Pirckheimer", The Essential Dürer, ed. Larry Silver and Jeffrey Chipps Smith, Philadelphia, 85–205
- ^ Price (2003), 225
- ^ Price (2003), 225–248
- ^ Wolf (2010), 74
- ^ Strauss, 1981
- ^ Price (2003), 254
- ^ Harbison (1976)
- ^ Lutheranism 101 edited by Scot A. Kinnaman, CPH, 2010
- ^ "'What is a Commemoration...', ELCA" (PDF).
- New York Times. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
- ^ A. Koyre, "The Exact Sciences", in The Beginnings of Modern Science, edited by Rene Taton, translated by A. J. Pomerans
- ^ Panofsky (1945), 255
- ^ Durer, Albrecht (1528). "Hierinn sind begriffen vier Bucher von menschlicher Proportion durch Albrechten Durer von Nurerberg". Hieronymus Andreae Formschneider. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
- ^ Panofsky (1945), 283
- ^ For a French translation, see Instruction sur la fortification des villes: bourgs et châteaux, trans A. Rathau (Paris 1870).
- ISBN 978-3-932077-50-0.
Sources
- Bartrum, Giulia. Albrecht Dürer and his Legacy. London: British Museum Press, 2002. ISBN 0-7141-2633-0
- Brand Philip, Lotte; Anzelewsky, Fedja. "The Portrait Diptych of Dürer's parents". Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Volume 10, No. 1, 1978–79. 5–18
- Thames and Hudson, 1960
- Harbison, Craig. "Dürer and the Reformation: The Problem of the Re-dating of the St. Philip Engraving". The Art Bulletin, Vol. 58, No. 3, 368–373. September 1976
- ISBN 978-0226449999
- Landau David; Parshall, Peter. The Renaissance Print. Yale, 1996. ISBN 0-300-06883-2
- ISBN 0-691-00303-3
- Price, David Hotchkiss. Albrecht Dürer's Renaissance: Humanism, Reformation and the Art of Faith. Michigan, 2003. ISBN 978-0-4721-1343-9.
- Strauss, Walter L. (ed.). The Complete Engravings, Etchings and Drypoints of Albrecht Durer. Mineola NY: ISBN 0-486-22851-7
- ISBN 978-0-500-23883-7
- Wolf, Norbert. Albrecht Dürer. Taschen, 2010. ISBN 978-3-8365-1348-7
- Hoffmann, Rainer (2021). Im Paradies : Adam und Eva und der Sündenfall--Albrecht Dürers Darstellungen (in German). Wien. OCLC 1288194477.)
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Further reading
- Campbell Hutchison, Jane. Albrecht Dürer: A Biography. Princeton University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-6-910-0297-5
- Demele, Christine. Dürers Nacktheit – Das Weimarer Selbstbildnis. Rhema Verlag, Münster 2012, ISBN 978-3-8688-7008-4
- Dürer, Albrecht (translated by R.T. Nichol from the Latin text), Of the Just Shaping of Letters, Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-21306-4
- Hart, Vaughan. 'Navel Gazing. On Albrecht Dürer's Adam and Eve (1504)', The International Journal of Arts Theory and History, 2016, vol. 12.1 pp. 1–10 https://doi.org/10.18848/2326-9960/CGP/v12i01/1-10
- Korolija Fontana-Giusti, Gordana. "The Unconscious and Space: Venice and the work of Albrecht Dürer", in Architecture and the Unconscious, eds. J. Hendrix and L.Holm, Farnham Surrey: Ashgate, 2016. pp. 27–44, ISBN 978-1-4724-5647-2.
- Wilhelm, Kurth (ed.). The Complete Woodcuts of Albrecht Durer, Dover Publications, 2000. ISBN 0-486-21097-9
External links
- Colvin, Sidney (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). pp. 697–703.
- The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer Archived 14 July 2015 at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. 14 November 2010 – 13 March 2011
- Dürer Prints Close-up. Made to accompany The Strange World of Albrecht Dürer at the Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute. 14 November 2010 – 13 March 2011
- Albrecht Dürer: Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion (Nuremberg, 1528). Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.
- Works by or about Albrecht Dürer at Internet Archive
- Works by Albrecht Dürer at Project Gutenberg
- "Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art
- Newspaper clippings about Albrecht Dürer in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW
- Albrecht Durer, Exhibition, Albertina, Vienna. 20 September 2019 – 6 January 2020