Alexander Kolchak
Alexander Kolchak | |
---|---|
Александр Колчак | |
Supreme Ruler of Russia[a] | |
In office 18 November 1918 – 7 February 1920 | |
Preceded by | Position established (Nikolai Avksentiev as Chairman of the Provisional All-Russian Government) |
Succeeded by | Anton Denikin (de facto) |
Personal details | |
Born | 16 November 1874 Russian State |
Cause of death | Execution by firing squad |
Spouse | Sophia Fedorovna Omirova Kolchak |
Children | Rostislav Kolchak |
Military service | |
Allegiance |
|
Branch/service | |
Years of service | 1886–1920 |
Rank | Admiral (from 1918 Onward) |
Battles/wars | Russo-Japanese War World War I Russian Civil War |
Alexander Vasilyevich Kolchak (
Early in the civil war, Kolchak briefly served as the minister of war and navy in the Provisional All-Russian Government until he was installed as leader and all authority was transferred to his own government in late 1918;[2] his authority was eventually recognized by the other leaders of the White movement,[3][2] and he served as its principal leader,[2] although Anton Denikin enjoyed more power than Kolchak.[2] His government was based in Omsk, in southwestern Siberia.
After initial successes in early 1919, Kolchak's forces lost ground due to a lack of support by the local populace and a failure to unite the leaders of counterrevolutionary movements.[4] Omsk fell to the Red Army in November 1919 during the Great Siberian Ice March, leading to Kolchak to transfer his headquarters to Irkutsk.[4] In December, he was betrayed and detained by the chief of the Allied military mission in Siberia, Maurice Janin, and the Czechoslovak Legion, who handed him over to local Socialist-Revolutionaries in January 1920;[5][6][7] the Bolsheviks executed him the next month in Irkutsk.[8]
Biography
Early life and career
Kolchak was born in
After considerable hardship, Kolchak returned in December 1902; Eduard Toll, along with three other explorers continued further north and were lost. Kolchak took part in two Arctic expeditions to look for the lost explorers (who were not found) and for a while was nicknamed "Kolchak-Poliarnyi" ("Kolchak the Polar"). For his explorations Kolchak received the Constantine Medal, the highest award of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society.[citation needed]
In December 1903, Kolchak was en route to St. Petersburg to marry his fiancée, Sophia Omirova, when, not far from
Returning to Saint Petersburg in April 1905, Kolchak was promoted to lieutenant commander and took part in rebuilding of the Imperial Russian Navy, which had been almost completely destroyed during the war. He served on the Naval General Staff from 1906, helping draft a shipbuilding program, a training program, and developing a new protection plan for St. Petersburg and the Gulf of Finland.[citation needed]
Kolchak took part in designing special
First World War
The onset of the First World War found him on the flagship Pogranichnik, where Kolchak oversaw laying of extensive coastal defensive minefields and commanded the naval forces in the
He was promoted to
One notable disaster took place under Kolchak's watch: the dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya exploded in port at Sevastopol on 7 October 1916. A careful investigation failed to determine whether the cause of the disaster was accident or sabotage.
Revolution
The Black Sea fleet descended into political chaos after the onset of the 1917 February Revolution. Kolchak was relieved of command of the fleet in June and traveled to Petrograd (St. Petersburg). On his arrival at Petrograd, Kolchak was invited to a meeting of the Provisional Government. There he presented his view on the condition of the Russian armed forces and their complete demoralisation. He stated that the only way to save the country was to re-establish strict discipline and restore capital punishment in the army and navy.
During this time many organisations and newspapers of a conservative inclination spoke of him as a future dictator. A number of new and secret organisations had sprung up in Petrograd with the goal of suppressing the Bolshevist movement and removal of the extremist members of the government. Some of these organisations asked Kolchak to accept the leadership.
When news of these plots found their way to then Naval Minister of the Provisional Government,
Russian Civil War
The
According to historian Richard Pipes, Kolchak was a man with poor social skills, being moody, melancholic, taciturn, and very uncomfortable in dealing with people.[17] Arriving at a dinner, Colonel John Ward described him as "a small, vagrant, lonely soul without a friend enter unbidden to a feast".[17] One who knew him wrote:
The character and soul of the Admiral are so transparent that one needs no more than one week of contact to know all there is to know about him. He is a big, sick child, a pure idealist, a convinced slave of duty and service to an idea and to Russia. An indubitable neurotic who quickly flares up, exceedingly impetuous and uncontrolled in expressions of displeasure and anger; in this respect he has assimilated the highly unattractive traditions of the naval service, which permit in high naval ranks behavior that in our army has long since passed into the realm of legend. He is utterly absorbed by the idea of serving Russia, of saving her from Red oppression, and restoring her to full power and to the inviolability of her territory. For the sake of this he can be persuaded and moved to do anything whatever. He has no personal interests, no amour propre: in this respect he is crystal pure. He passionately despises all lawlessness and arbitrariness, but because he is so uncontrolled and impulsive, he himself often unintentionally transgresses against the law, and this mainly when seeking to uphold the same law, and always under the influence of some outsider. He does not know life in its severe, practical reality, and lives in a world of mirages and borrowed ideas. He has no plans, no system, no will: in this respect he is soft wax from which advisers and intimates can fashion whatever they want, exploiting the fact that it is enough to disguise something as necessary for the welfare of Russia and the good of the cause to be certain of his approval.[18]
Another who knew him wrote of Kolchak:
He is kind and at the same time severe, responsive and at the same time embarrassed to show human feelings, concealing his gentleness behind make-believe severity. He is impatient and stubborn, loses his temper, threatens and then calms down, making concessions, spreads his hands in a gesture of helplessness. He is bursting to be with the people, with the troops, but when he faces them, has no idea of what to say.[19]
Politically naive and an inept administrator, Kolchak described himself as a "military technician" who knew nothing of politics, described power as a "cross", and in a letter to his wife wrote about the "terrifying burden of Supreme Power" and admitted that as "a fighting man he was reluctant to face the problems of statecraft".
In November 1918, the unpopular regional government was overthrown in a British sponsored
Kolchak issued the following appeal to the population:[20]
"I shall not go either on the road of reaction or on the fatal road of Party partisanship. I set as my main objective the creation of an efficient army, victory over Bolshevism and the establishment of law and order, so that the people may choose the form of government which it desires without obstruction and realize the great ideas of liberty which are now proclaimed in the whole world. I summon you, citizens, to unity, to struggle with Bolshevism, to labor and to sacrifices"
The Left SR leaders in Russia denounced Kolchak and called for his assassination. Their activities resulted in a small revolt in Omsk on 22 December 1918, which was quickly put down by Cossacks and the Czechoslovak Legion,[21] who summarily executed almost 500 rebels. Subsequently, the SRs opened negotiations with the Bolsheviks and in January 1919 the SR People's Army joined up with the Red Army.
Kolchak pursued a policy of persecuting revolutionaries as well as Socialists of several factions. His government issued a decree on 3 December 1918 stating, "In order to preserve the system and rule of the Supreme Ruler, articles of the criminal code of Imperial Russia were revised, Articles 99 and 100 of which established capital punishment for assassination attempts on the Supreme Ruler and for attempting to overthrow his government." Insults written, printed, and oral, are punishable by imprisonment under Article 103. Bureaucratic sabotage under Article 329 was punishable by hard labour from 15 to 20 years.[22]
Although the news of Kolchak's ascension to power spread very slowly behind Bolshevik lines, it caused considerable excitement among anti-communist Russians living there. Ivan Bunin wrote in his diary, "4/17 June 1919. The Entente has named Kolchak the Supreme Ruler of Russia. Izvestia wrote an obscene article saying: 'Tell us, you reptile, how much did they pay you for that?' The devil with them. I crossed myself with tears of joy."[23]
On 11 April 1919, the Kolchak government adopted Regulation no. 428, "About dangers to public order due to ties with the Bolshevik Revolt". The legislation was published in the Omsk newspaper Omsk Gazette (no. 188 of 19 July 1919). It provided a term of 5 years imprisonment for "individuals considered a threat to the public order because of their ties in any way with the Bolshevik revolt." In the case of unauthorized return from exile, there could be hard labour from 4 to 8 years. Articles 99–101 allowed the death penalty, forced labour and imprisonment, repression by military courts, and imposed no investigation commissions.[22]
Kolchak acknowledged all of Russia's debts, returned nationalized factories and plants to their owners, granted concessions to foreign investors, dispersed trade unions, persecuted Marxists, and disbanded the soviets. Kolchak's agrarian policy was directed toward restoring private land ownership. To this end former Tsarist laws concerning property were restored.
On 26 May 1919, the Supreme War Council in Paris offered to provide Kolchak with unlimited supplies of food, weapons, munitions and other supplies (but not diplomatic recognition) provided that he was willing to meet the following conditions:
- Promise to convene the Constituent Assembly the Bolsheviks had disbanded in January 1918.[24]
- Allow local self-government in territories under his control.[24]
- Promise not to restore the aristocracy, the "former land system" and "make no attempt to reintroduce the regime which the revolution had destroyed" (i.e. not restore the monarchy).[24]
- Recognize independence of Finland and Poland.[24]
- Accept Allied mediation for relations with the Baltic states and in the Caucasus.[25]
- Promise to join the League of Nations.[25]
- Promise to pay all of Russia's debts.[25]
Pipes wrote that though the Allies wanted a Constituent Assembly to decide the future of Russia, they had decided in advance in their conditions that, for instance, there would be no restoration of the monarchy as well as many other matters that properly should have been decided by the Constituent Assembly.[25] Because Kolchak was entirely dependent upon supplies from Britain—the British had shipped him in the period October 1918-October 1919 about 600,000 rifles, 6,831 machine guns, and about 200,000 uniforms—he had to accept nearly all of the conditions.[25] In a telegram to Paris sent on 4 June 1919, Kolchak accepted every condition except for the independence of Finland, which he accepted only de facto, not de jure, saying he wanted the Constituent Assembly to grant Finland its independence.[25] As the Allies were especially opposed to a return of the House of Romanov, Kolchak emphatically declared "that there cannot be a return to the regime which existed in Russia before February 1917."[25] The British War Secretary Winston Churchill pressed very strongly in the cabinet for British recognition of Kolchak's government, but the Prime Minister David Lloyd George would only do so if the United States likewise recognized Kolchak.[25] The American president Woodrow Wilson was strongly hostile towards Kolchak, openly doubted his word, and was against diplomatic recognition.[25] Wilson's main adviser on Russia was the former head of the Provisional Government, Alexander Kerensky, who told Wilson that Kolchak was a "reactionary" who would "inaugurate a regime hardly less sanguinary and repressive than that of the Bolsheviks."[26] Though American forces in Siberia co-operated with Kolchak, it was clear he was not the man favored by the United States as the next leader of Russia.[27] American forces had been sent to Siberia less to help the Whites than to prevent the Japanese, who had occupied the Russian Far East, from annexing it as Tokyo was openly considering.
The
In an excerpt from the order of the government of Yenisei county in Irkutsk province, General. S. Rozanov said:[22]
Those villages whose population meets troops with arms, burn down the villages and shoot the adult males without exception. If hostages are taken in cases of resistance to government troops, shoot the hostages without mercy.
There was prominent underground resistance in the regions controlled by Kolchak's government. These partisans were especially strong in the provinces of Altai and Yeniseysk. In summer 1919 partisans of the Altai Region united to form the Western Siberian Peasants' Red Army (25,000 men). The Taseev Soviet Partisan Republic was founded south-east of Yeniseysk in early 1919. By the fall of 1919, Kolchak's rear was completely disintegrating. About 100,000 Siberian partisans seized vast regions from Kolchak's regime even before the approach of the Red Army. In February 1920, some 20,000 partisans took control of the Amur region.[32]
British historian
It is no longer possible for any sane man to regard the campaigns of Kolchak, Yudenich, Denikin and
Wrangelotherwise than as tragic blunders of colossal dimensions.
On the contrary, a former chief of staff to Admiral Kolchak wrote,[34]
They (Kolchak,
Wrangel) were first of all patriots with a deep love for their country and worked for its salvation without any regard for self-advancement. Political intrigues were unknown to them and they were ready to work with men of any political party, so long as they knew that these men were sincere in their endeavours to free Russia... and to make it possible, after the end of the war, for a National Assembly, chosen by the people, to decide the character of the future Government of Russia.
Supreme Ruler of Russia
Initially the White forces under his command had some success. Kolchak was unfamiliar with combat on land and gave the majority of the strategic planning to D. A. Lebedev, Paul J. Bubnar, and his staff. The northern army under the Russian
.The White forces took Ufa in March 1919 and pushed on from there to take
Kolchak had also aroused dislike of potential allies, including the
Defeat and death
From 1919, when the Bolshevik forces managed to reorganise and turn the attack against Kolchak, he quickly lost ground. The Red counter-attack began in late April at the centre of the White line, aiming for Ufa. The fighting was fierce as, unlike earlier, both sides fought hard. Ufa was taken by the Red Army on 9 June and later that month the Red forces under
Kolchak also came under threat from other quarters: local opponents began to agitate and international support began to wane, with even the British turning more towards Denikin. Gajda, dismissed from command of the northern army, staged an abortive coup in mid-November. Omsk was evacuated on 14 November, and the Red Army took the city without any serious resistance, capturing large amounts of ammunition, almost 50,000 soldiers, and ten generals. As there was a continued flood of refugees eastwards, typhus too became a serious problem.
Kolchak had left Omsk on the 13th for
Kolchak was then promised safe passage by the Czechoslovaks to the British military mission in Irkutsk. Instead, he was handed over to the Left SR authorities in Irkutsk on 14 January. On 20 January the government in Irkutsk surrendered power to a Bolshevik military committee. The White Army under the command of General Vladimir Kappel advanced toward Irkutsk while Kolchak was interrogated by a commission of five men representing the Revolutionary Committee (REVKOM) during nine days between 21 January and 6 February. Despite the arrival of a contrary order from Moscow,[35] Admiral Kolchak was sentenced to death along with his Prime Minister, Viktor Pepelyayev.
Both prisoners were brought before a firing squad in the late night of 6 February 1920.[36] According to eyewitnesses, Kolchak was entirely calm and unafraid, "like an Englishman." The Admiral asked the commander of the firing squad, "Would you be so good as to get a message sent to my wife in Paris to say that I bless my son?" The commander responded, "I'll see what can be done, if I don't forget about it."[37]
A priest of the
Awards and decorations
- Russian Empire:
- Cross of St. George, 3rd class (15 April 1919)
- Cross of St. George, 4th class (2 November 1915)
- Order of Saint Anna, 1st class with swords (1 January 1917)
- Order of Saint Anna, 2nd class (6 December 1910)
- Order of Saint Anna, 4th class with the inscription "For Bravery" (15 November 1904)
- Order of Saint Stanislaus, 1st class with swords (4 July 1916)
- Order of Saint Stanislaus, 2nd class with swords (12 December 1905)
- Order of Saint Vladimir, 2nd class with swords (12 December 1905)
- Order of Saint Vladimir, 3rd class with swords (9 February 1915)
- Order of Saint Vladimir, 4th class with swords and bow (19 March 1907)
- Saint George Gold Sword for Bravery, with inscription "For the defense in cases against the enemy near Port Arthur" (12 December 1905)
- Russo-Japanese War Medal (1906)
- Medal "In commemoration of the reign of Emperor Alexander III" (1896)
- Medal "In Commemoration of the 300th Anniversary of the Reign of the House of Romanov" (1913)
- Medal "In Commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the Naval Battle of Gangut" (1915)
- Imperial Russian Geographical Society(30 January 1906)
- Port Arthur Cross (1914)
- French Third Republic:
- Officer of the Legion of Honour (1914)
- British Empire:
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (1915)
Legacy
This article is part of a series on |
Conservatism in Russia |
---|
Admiral Kolchak's government was not successful from the time of his taking the position of "Supreme Ruler" until his death. As a military commander he was unable to make successful strategic plans or to coordinate with other White Army generals such as
Kolchak also failed to convince potentially friendly Finland to join with him against the Bolsheviks.[citation needed] He was unable to win diplomatic recognition from any nation in the world, even the United Kingdom (though the British did support him to some degree). In addition he alienated the Czechoslovak Legion, which for a time was a powerful organised military force in the region and very strongly anti-Bolshevik. As was mentioned above, the American commander, General Graves, disliked Kolchak[38] and refused to lend him any military aid at all.
After decades of being vilified by the Soviet government, Kolchak is now a controversial historic figure in post-Soviet Russia.[
Monuments dedicated to Kolchak were built in Saint Petersburg in 2002 and in Irkutsk in 2004, despite objections from some former communist and left-wing politicians, as well as former Soviet army veterans.
Kolchak was a prominent expert on
In culture
A Kolchak biographical film, titled
It's about a man who tries to create history, to take an active part in history, as he gets caught in the turmoil. However, he keeps on struggling, he preserves his honor and his dignity, and he continues to love.[44]
A collectible silver coin (31.1 gr, dia 40mm) showing Admiral Kolchak has been struck.
In the shared
See also
- Iliaș Colceag, an ancestor
References
- ^ Yegorov, O. (27 December 2019). "Meet Russian Imperial officers who almost stopped the Bolsheviks". Russia Beyond the Headlines. Archived from the original on 19 February 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
- ^ ISBN 978-0-19-873482-6.
- ^ ISBN 0521029074. p.77
- ^ ISBN 978-0-313-29570-6.
- ISBN 978-5-91862-057-1., p.235
- ISBN 5-8112-0547-3. — С. 443, 461.
- ISBN 5-9524-2530-5, p. 235
- ^ N. G. O. Pereira, "White Power during the Civil War in Siberia (1918–1920): Dilemmas of Kolchak's 'War Anti-Communism'", in: Canadian Slavonic Papers (1987) 29#1 pp 45–62.
- ^ "Знакомьтесь, Колчак. Молдавские предки адмирала". 30 October 2018.
- ^ Bacalov, Sergiu (11 April 2016). "Strămoşii moldoveni ai amiralului rus Aleksandr Kolceak" [Moldavian ancestors of Russian Admiral Alexander Kolchak] (in Romanian). Archived from the original on 13 April 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2016.
- ^ Admiral Kolchak, K.A. Bogdanov, St. Petersburg Sudostroyeniye 1993
- ^ Kolchak A.V., 1909, Ice of the Kara and Siberian Seas (170 pp.). St. Petersburg (in Russian).
- ^ Kolchak, A., 1909. The Arctic and the polynya. In: Joerg, W.L.G. 1928. Problems of polar research. New York: American Geographical Society:125–141.
- ISBN 1-84158-138-0.
- ^ Fleming (2001). Kolchak. pp. 54–55.
- ^ Pipes 1993, p. 48.
- ^ a b c Pipes 1993, p. 49.
- ^ a b Pipes 1993, p. 49-50.
- ^ Pipes 1993, p. 50.
- ^ Chamberlin, William (1935). The Russian Revolution, 1917-1921, Volume Two. New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 178.
- ISBN 978-80-87173-47-3, pages 11-99, 101-102, 124–125, 128, 129, 132, 140–148, 184–190.
- ^ a b c Цветков В. Ж. Белый террор – преступление или наказание? Эволюция судебно-правовых норм ответственности за государственные преступления в законодательстве белых правительств в 1917–1922 гг.
- ^ Ivan Bunin (1926) Cursed Days: A Diary of Revolution, p. 177.
- ^ a b c d Pipes 1993, p. 78.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Pipes 1993, p. 79.
- ^ Pipes 1993, p. 79-80.
- ^ Pipes 1993, p. 80.
- ^ Колчаковщина (Kolchakovshchina) in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969–1978 (in Russian)
- ISBN 978-0-691-09015-3. Archivedfrom the original on 4 February 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2016. – not an original source citation, Mayer's footnote for this statement not cited.
- ISBN 5-7030-0951-0
- ISBN 978-1-58367-694-3.
- ^ Партизанское движение в 1918-22 in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969–1978 (in Russian)
- ISBN 978-1-85984-289-8, p. 32
- JSTOR 4202781.
- ^ ISBN 0306809095
- ^ Footman, David. Civil War in Russia. New York: Fredrick A. Prager, 1961. 242.
- ^ a b Peter Fleming (1963) The Fate of Admiral Kolchak, Harcourt, Brace, & World, Inc., pp. 216–217.
- ^ "Graves To Lead Our Siberian Army. Former Assistant Chief Of General Staff To Have 7,000 Men At The Start. Troops From Philippines 27th and 31st Regiments". The New York Times. 8 August 1918. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 17 September 2018.
- ^ a b Krasnov, V. G. Kolchak: I zhiznʹ, i smertʹza Rossiiu. 2 vols. Moscow: OLMA- Press, 2000. Kvakin, A. V., ed. Okrest Kolchaka: Dokumenty i materialy. Moscow: AGRAF, 2004. ———. S Kolchakom—protiv Kolchaka: Kratkii biograficheskiĭ ...
- ISBN 5-7838-0424-X
- ^ a b c Колчак Александр Васильевич (in Russian). Hrono.ru. Archived from the original on 21 October 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
- ^ Плотников, И.Ф. Александр Васильевич Колчак. Жизнь и деятельность (in Russian). Militera.lib.ru. Archived from the original on 16 December 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
- ^ Acović, Dragomir (2012). Slava i čast: Odlikovanja među Srbima, Srbi među odlikovanjima. Belgrade: Službeni Glasnik. p. 364.
- YouTube
- ^ "RUSSIA in Ill Bethisad". Archived from the original on 13 August 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
- ^ "History of Russia in Ill Bethisad". Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
- ^ "Point of Divergence - IBWiki". Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
- ^ "Kolchak - IBWiki". Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2021.
Notes
- ^ Contested during the Russian Civil War.
Bibliography
- Admiral Kolchak. M. I. Smirnov. The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 11, No. 32 (Jan., 1933), pp. 373–387
- Problems of Polar Research: a Series of Papers by Thirty-one Authors. Special Publication No.7. New York, American Geographical Society, 1928.
- The testimony of Kolchak and other Siberian materials. Varneck, Elena, Harold H. Fisher, Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Kolchak, Konstantīn Andreevīch Papov, and Anton Zakharovich Ovchinnikov. 1935. Stanford University Press. 1935.
- Pipes, Richard (1993). Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime. New York: Alfred Knopf.
- Skarbo, Svetlana and Valeria Sukhova. (2020) “Admiral Kolchak’s Archive has returned to Russia 100 Years after his Execution Archived 16 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine.” Siberian Times (February 12).
- Smele, Jonathan Civil War in Siberia: The Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak, Jonathan D. Cambridge University press, 1996.
- White Siberia, N.G.O. Pereira. McGill-Queens University Press, 1996.
Further reading
- Buchanan-Brown, Michael, and Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Kolchak. 1918. The Intervention 1918-1920 [Russian Civil War].Collection consists of documents and photos regarding The Intervention, 1918–1920.
- Connaughton, R. M. The Republic of the Ushakovka: Admiral Kolchak and the Allied Intervention in Siberia, 1918–1920, Routledge, 1990.
- Cracknell, Brian. The Failure of Admiral Kolchak, Eureditions, 1978.
- Hammond, Gail C. Admiral Kolchak: A Contrast of Hope and Betrayal for Russia, 1918–1920, Western Connecticut State College, 1982.
- Landfield, Jerome. "The Attempt to Discredit Kolchak," Weekly Review, Vol. I, No. 9, July 1919.
- S. V. Novikov. “Admiral Kolchak in Omsk: On History of Civil War in Russia and Geopolitical Redistribution of Europe after First World War.” Омский Научный Вестник: Серия “Общество. История. Современность” 5, no. 4 (2020): 31–41.
- Pereira, N. G. O. "White Power during the Civil War in Siberia (1918–1920): Dilemmas of Kolchak's 'War Anti-Communism,'" Canadian Slavonic Papers (1987) 29#1 pp 45–62. online
- Sosenkov, F. S. “Politico-Legal Views of A. V. Kolchak on the Problems of the Unity of Russia.” Vestnik of the Omsk Law Academy 14, no. 2 (2017): 6–10.
- Stewart, George. The White Armies of Russia; A Chronicle of Counter-Revolution and Allied Intervention, Archived 15 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine The Macmillan Company, 1933.
- Unterberger, Betty Miller. America's Siberian Expedition, 1918–1920; A Study of National Policy, Archived 15 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine Duke University Press, 1956.