Dyslexia
Dyslexia | |
---|---|
Other names | Reading disorder, alexia |
teaching[2] | |
Treatment | Adjusting teaching methods[1] |
Frequency | 3–7%[2][5] |
Dyslexia, previously known as word blindness, is a
Dyslexia is believed to be caused by the
Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.[1] While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.[10] Treatments targeting vision are not effective.[11] Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world.[12] It affects 3–7% of the population;[2][5] however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.[13] While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys, this is partly explained by a self-fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals.[2][14] It has even been suggested that the condition affects men and women equally.[12] Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different way of learning, with both benefits and downsides.[15][16]
Classification
Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms.
Signs and symptoms
In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.[11] A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.[20] These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.[11]
School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words—both of which depend on phonological awareness.[21] They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of k, a, and t in cat) or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness.[22]
Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.[23]: 647 People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia, which depends on the skill of orthographic coding.[11]
Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words—a measure of phonological awareness.[24]
Associated conditions
Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.[25] These associated disabilities include:
- Dysgraphia
- A disorder involving difficulties with tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.[26] In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.[26]
- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
- A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.[27] Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.[5][28][29] Approximately 15%[11] or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD;[30] and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.[11]
- Auditory processing disorder
- A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.[33][34]
- Developmental coordination disorder
- A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-kinesthetic coordination; difficulty in the use of speech sounds; and problems with short-term memory and organization.[35]
Causes
Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.[36][37] For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.[38]
Neuroanatomy
The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading.[43] The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.[44]
Genetics
Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.
Gene–environment interaction
The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using
As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that
Language
The
Pathophysiology
For most people who are right-hand dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing. With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres.[59]
Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.[59] Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia, thus identifying the effects of dyslexia-related genes.[60]
Dual route theory
The dual-route theory of
Diagnosis
Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.[66][67] Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (phonological processing); and verbal working memory deficits.[68][69]
Dyslexia is a
The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling" and is characterized by "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed".
Assessment
The following can be done to assess for dyslexia:
Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist), and occupational therapist.[77]
Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognizing rhyming words; identifying the initial sounds in words).[78]
Do not rely on tests exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests.[79][80]
Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach,[81] which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach."[82]
Assessment tests
There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia.[83] If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.[84] Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.[85] Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies.[85][86] Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficultly learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include:[87]
- General measures of cognitive ability, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.[88]
- Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.[89][90][91][92]
- Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development, that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training.[93][94][95]
Screening
Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test.
In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that "[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning.[100]
Management
Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.
Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as
There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia.[107]
There is some evidence from an RCT that atomoxetine might be helpful for dyslexic with or without ADHD.[108]
Prognosis
Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age.[109] The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.[1] The New York educational system (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterrupted 90-minute block of instruction in reading" and "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency" so as to improve the individual's reading ability.[110]
Epidemiology
The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population.[111] Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males.[2]
There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world. Further, differences in writing systems may affect development of written language ability due to the interplay between auditory and written representations of phonemes.
The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.[116]
History
Dyslexia was clinically described by
Society and culture
As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder.[103] There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia.[124] If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.[125]
Since at least the 1960s in the UK, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families.[126] Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia.[126] Access to some special educational resources and funding is contingent upon having a diagnosis of dyslexia.[126] As a result, when Staffordshire and Warwickshire proposed in 2018 to teach reading to all children with reading difficulties, using techniques proven to be successful for most children with a diagnosis of dyslexia, without first requiring the families to obtain an official diagnosis, dyslexia advocates and parents of children with dyslexia were fearful that they were losing a privileged status.[126]
Stigma and success
Due to the various cognitive processes that dyslexia affects and the overwhelming societal stigma around the disability, individuals with dyslexia often employ behaviors of self-stigma and perfectionistic self-presentation in order to cope with their disability.[127] The perfectionist self-presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections.[127] This behavior presents serious risk as it often results in mental health issues and refusal to seek help for their disability.[127]
Research
Most dyslexia research relates to
See also
- Dyscalculia, difficulty comprehending numbers and math
- Learning to read
- Orton-Gillingham
- List of people with dyslexia
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Osmin Anis, et al. (15 October 2019). "Dyslexia" (PDF). WikiJournal of Medicine. 6 (1): 5. {{cite journal}}
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Further reading
- Ramus F, Altarelli I, Jednoróg K, Zhao J, Scotto di Covella L (January 2018). "Neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia: Pitfalls and promise". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 84: 434–452. S2CID 33176236.
- Beaton A (14 October 2004). Dyslexia, Reading and the Brain: A Sourcebook of Psychological and Biological Research. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-135-42275-2.
- ISBN 978-0-470-02747-9.
- Reid G, Fawcett A (12 May 2008). Dyslexia in Context: Research, Policy and Practice. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-77801-2.
- Thomson M (18 March 2009). The Psychology of Dyslexia: A Handbook for Teachers with Case Studies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-74197-9.
- Reid G (17 March 2011). Dyslexia (3 ed.). A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4411-6585-5.
- Selikowitz M (2 July 2012). Dyslexia and Other Learning Difficulties. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969177-7.
- Ellis AW (25 February 2014). Reading, Writing and Dyslexia: A Cognitive Analysis. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-317-71630-3.
- ISBN 978-0-521-11986-3.
- Agnew S, Stewart J, Redgrave S (8 October 2014). Dyslexia and Us: A collection of personal stories. Andrews UK Limited. ISBN 978-1-78333-250-2.
- "Dyslexia Is a Myth". Bruce Deitrick Price. American Thinker.
- Norton ES, Beach SD, Gabrieli JD (February 2015). "Neurobiology of dyslexia". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 30: 73–8. PMID 25290881.
- Serrallach B, Groß C, Bernhofs V, Engelmann D, Benner J, Gündert N, Blatow M, Wengenroth M, Seitz A, Brunner M, Seither S, Parncutt R, Schneider P, Seither-Preisler A (2016). "Neural Biomarkers for Dyslexia, ADHD, and ADD in the Auditory Cortex of Children". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 10: 324. PMID 27471442.
- Shao S, Niu Y, Zhang X, Kong R, Wang J, Liu L, Luo X, Zhang J, Song R (July 2016). "Opposite Associations between Individual KIAA0319 Polymorphisms and Developmental Dyslexia Risk across Populations: A Stratified Meta-Analysis by the Study Population". Scientific Reports. 6: 30454. PMID 27464509.
- Brewer CC, Zalewski CK, King KA, Zobay O, Riley A, Ferguson MA, Bird JE, McCabe MM, Hood LJ, Drayna D, Griffith AJ, Morell RJ, Friedman TB, Moore DR (August 2016). "Heritability of non-speech auditory processing skills". European Journal of Human Genetics. 24 (8): 1137–44. PMID 26883091.
- Mascheretti S, De Luca A, Trezzi V, Peruzzo D, Nordio A, Marino C, Arrigoni F (January 2017). "Neurogenetics of developmental dyslexia: from genes to behavior through brain neuroimaging and cognitive and sensorial mechanisms". Translational Psychiatry. 7 (1): e987. PMID 28045463.
- Fraga González G, Žarić G, Tijms J, Bonte M, van der Molen MW (January 2017). "Contributions of Letter-Speech Sound Learning and Visual Print Tuning to Reading Improvement: Evidence from Brain Potential and Dyslexia Training Studies". Brain Sciences. 7 (1): 10. PMID 28106790.
- Rudov A, Rocchi MB, Accorsi A, Spada G, Procopio AD, Olivieri F, Rippo MR, Albertini MC (October 2013). "Putative miRNAs for the diagnosis of dyslexia, dyspraxia, and specific language impairment". Epigenetics. 8 (10): 1023–9. PMID 23949389.
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