Alfred von Schlieffen
Alfred von Schlieffen | |
---|---|
Chief of the German Great General Staff | |
In office 7 February 1891 – 1 January 1906 | |
Monarch | Wilhelm II |
Chancellor |
|
Preceded by | Alfred von Waldersee |
Succeeded by | Helmuth von Moltke the Younger |
Personal details | |
Born | Invalidenfriedhof, Berlin | 28 February 1833
Spouse |
Anna Gräfin von Schlieffen
(m. 1868; died 1872) |
Children | 2 |
Known for | the Schlieffen Plan |
Military service | |
Allegiance | Kingdom of Prussia (1853–1871) German Empire
|
Branch/service | Prussian Army Imperial German Army |
Years of service | 1853–1906 |
Rank | Generalfeldmarschall |
Commands | 1st Guards Uhlans |
Battles/wars | |
Awards | Order of the Black Eagle |
Graf[a] Alfred von Schlieffen, generally called Count Schlieffen (German pronunciation: [ˈʃliːfn̩]; 28 February 1833 – 4 January 1913) was a German field marshal and strategist who served as chief of the Imperial German General Staff from 1891 to 1906.[1] His name lived on in the 1905–06 "Schlieffen Plan",[2] then Aufmarsch I, a deployment plan and operational guide for a decisive initial offensive operation/campaign in a two-front war against the French Third Republic.
Biography
Born in Prussia, Germany, on 28 February 1833 as the son of a Prussian Army officer, he was part of an old Prussian noble family, the Schlieffen family. He lived with his father, Major Magnus von Schlieffen, on their estate in Silesia, which he left to go to school in 1842. Growing up, Schlieffen had shown no interest in joining the military and so he did not attend the traditional Prussian cadet academies. Instead, he studied at the University of Berlin.[3] While he was studying law, he enlisted in the army in 1853 for his one year of compulsory military service.[4] Then, instead of joining the reserves, he was chosen as an officer candidate. He thus started a long military career, working his way up through the officer ranks, eventually completing 53 years of service.
In 1868, fifteen years into his military career, Schlieffen married his cousin Countess Anna Schlieffen. They had one healthy child (Elisabeth Auguste Marie Ernestine Gräfin von Schlieffen, 13 September 1869 – 23 September 1943), but after the birth of a second (Marie, who became a nun), his wife died.[3] Schlieffen then focused all of his attention on his military work.[5]
Military service
On the recommendation of his commanders,[3] Schlieffen was admitted to the General War School in 1858 at the age of 25, much earlier than others. He graduated in 1861 with high honours, which guaranteed him a role as a General Staff officer. In 1862, he was assigned to the Topographic Bureau of the General Staff,[3] providing him with geographical knowledge and a respect for the tactical and strategic value of terrain and weather that would serve him well throughout his career, particularly in the war games he conducted and in the devising of various war plans including the famous Schlieffen Plan. In 1865 he was transferred to the German General Staff proper, though his role was initially a minor one. He first saw active war service as a staff officer with the Prussian Cavalry Corps at the Battle of Königgrätz of 1866, during the Austro-Prussian War.[3] The tactical "battle of encirclement" conducted there was from that point forward a constant feature of his tactical doctrine, even as his strategic doctrine consistently favoured the counter-offensive due to both his understanding of terrain and his respect for von Clausewitz's assessment of the constantly-diminishing strength of the offensive.
During the
In 1904, on the occasion of the
In August 1905, at the age of 72, Schlieffen was kicked by a companion's horse, making him "incapable of battle". After nearly 53 years of service, Schlieffen retired on New Year's Day, 1906.
The German Army
For Schlieffen, the smaller rate of conscription into the German army (55 per cent, compared to France's rate of 80 per cent), created a numerical imbalance, which was worsened by the
From June 1891, Schlieffen proposed to form Ersatzbataillone into brigades in the field army but the units were not effective forces. Replacement units as field units would also not be able to replace field army casualties. The War Ministry rejected Schlieffen's proposals, and nothing was done until 1911, six years after Schlieffen's retirement, when six Ersatz divisions were formed by General Erich Ludendorff. Schlieffen continued to believe in the mass use of Ersatzbataillone, making them fundamental to the Denkschrift (memorandum or think piece) which became known as the Schlieffen Plan (January 1906). The Denkschrift was not a campaign plan, as Schlieffen had retired on 31 December 1905 and the 96 divisions needed to carry out this one-front war plan did not exist (in 1914 the German army had 79, of which 68 were deployed in the west). Rather, it was a demonstration of what Germany might accomplish if universal conscription was introduced.[10]
Schlieffen thought that even this hypothetical 96-division German army would probably not be able to defeat France,
These preparations [encircling Paris] can be made any way that you like: it will soon become clear that we will be too weak to continue the operation in this direction. We will have the same experience as that of all previous conquerors, that offensive warfare both requires and uses up very strong forces, that these forces become weaker even as those of the defender become stronger, and this is especially true in a land that bristles with fortresses.[11]
Without twelve Ersatz divisions on the right flank (in 1914 the German army had six which operated in Lorraine), outflanking Paris was impossible. Schlieffen admitted in the Denkschrift that Ersatz units could not catch the right wing by foot-marching, nor would the rail system suffice to move twelve Ersatz divisions to Paris. If they could not be sent to the right wing, they could be deployed practically anywhere else on the German front, either between
War planning
The cornerstone of Schlieffen's war planning was undoubtedly the strategic counter-offensive. Schlieffen was a great believer in the power of the attack in the context of the defensive operation. Germany's smaller forces relative to the Franco-Russian Entente meant that an offensive posture against one or both was basically suicidal. On the other hand, Schlieffen placed great faith in Germany's ability to use its railways to launch a counter-offensive against a hypothetical French or Russian invasion force, defeat it, then quickly re-group her troops and launch a counter-offensive against the other. To quote Holmes:
The Generalstabsreise Ost [eastern wargame] of 1901 followed on from a Generalstabsreise West of the same year, in which the French attacked through Belgium and Luxembourg and were decisively beaten by a counter-attack on the left bank of the Rhine near to the Belgian border. It was this defensive victory that Schlieffen was referring to when he spoke of the need to crush one enemy first and then turn against the other. He insisted that the Germans 'must wait for the enemy to emerge from behind his defensive ramparts, which he will do eventually'. That was the approach adopted in this exercise, and the Germans won a decisive victory over the French.[18]
Schlieffen also recognised the need for offensive planning, however, as failing to do so would limit the German Army's capabilities if the situation called for them. In 1897, starting from a plan of 1894, Schlieffen developed a tactical plan that – acknowledging the German army's limited offensive power and capacity for strategic manoeuvres – basically amounted to using brute force to advance beyond the French defences on the Franco-German border.[19] To complement this unsophisticated manoeuvre and improve its chances of success he deemed it necessary to outflank the fortress line to the north and focus on destroying it from north–south starting at Verdun. This was, it must be stated, a tactical plan centred around the destruction of the fortress-line that called for very little movement by the forces involved.[20]
In 1905, however, Schlieffen developed what was truly his first plan for a strategic offensive operation – the Schlieffen plan Denkschrift (Schlieffen plan memorandum). This plan was based on the hypothesis of an isolated Franco-German war which would not involve Russia and called for Germany to attack France. The rough draft of this plan was so crude as not to consider questions of supply at all and be vague on the actual number of troops involved, but theorised that Germany would need to raise at least another 100,000 professional troops and 100,000 "ersatz" militiamen (the latter being within Germany's capabilities even in 1905) in addition to being able to count on
But it is here, in the second and final phase of the operation, that Schlieffen shows his true genius: he notes the immense strength of the French "second defensive area" in which the French can use the fortress-sector of Verdun, "Fortress Paris", and the River Marne as the basis of a very strong defensive line. Appreciating its defensive power, Schlieffen knew that he would have to try to force the French back from the Marne or at least secure a bridgehead over the Marne and/or Seine if he did not want the second German operation/campaign of the war to result in heavy losses. To do this, Schlieffen insisted that they cross the Seine to the west of Paris and, if they managed to cross in strength against sufficiently weak opposition, then they might even be able to force the French back from the westernmost sections of the Marne and surround Paris.[21]
However, the bulk of Schlieffen's planning still followed his personal preferences for the counter-offensive. Aufmarsch II and Aufmarsch Ost (later Aufmarsch II West and Aufmarsch I Ost, respectively) continued to stress that Germany's best hope for survival if faced by a war with the Franco-Russian entente was a defensive strategy. This "defensive strategy", it must be noted, was reconciled with a very offensive tactical posture as Schlieffen held that the destruction of an attacking force required that it be surrounded and attacked from all sides until it surrendered, and not merely repulsed as in a "passive" defense:
Discussing the proper German response to a French offensive between Metz and Strasbourg, he insists that the invading army must not be driven back to its border position, but annihilated on German territory, and "that is possible only by means of an attack on the enemy’s flank and rear". Whenever we come across that formula we have to take note of the context, which frequently reveals that Schlieffen is talking about a counter-attack in the framework of a defensive strategy [italics ours].[22]
In August 1905 Schlieffen was kicked by a companion's horse, making him "incapable of battle". During his time off, now at the age of 72, he started planning his retirement. His successor was yet undetermined. Goltz was the primary candidate, but the Emperor was not fond of him.[23] A favourite of the Emperor was Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, who became Chief of Staff after Schlieffen retired.
Moltke went on to devise Aufmarsch II Ost, a variant upon Schlieffen's Aufmarsch Ost designed for an isolated Russo-German war. Schlieffen seems to have tried to impress upon Moltke that an offensive strategy against France could work only for isolated Franco-German war, as German forces would otherwise be too weak to implement it.[24] Thus, Moltke still attempted to apply the offensive strategy of Aufmarsch I West to the two-front war Germany faced in 1914 and Schlieffen's defensive plan Aufmarsch II West. With too few troops to cross west of Paris, let alone attempt a crossing of the Seine, Moltke's campaign failed to breach the French "second defensive sector" and his troops were pushed back in the Battle of the Marne.[25]
Influence
Schlieffen was perhaps the best-known contemporary strategist of his time, but he was criticised for his "narrow-minded military scholasticism."[26]
Schlieffen's
Along with the great militarist man that Schlieffen is famous for being, there are also underlying traits about Schlieffen that often go untold. As we know, Schlieffen was a strategist. Unlike the Chief of Staff, Waldersee, Schlieffen avoided political affairs and instead was actively involved in the tasks of the General Staff, including the preparation of war plans and the readiness of the German Army for war. He focused much of his attention on planning. He devoted time to training, military education and the adaptation of modern technology for the use of military purposes and strategic planning.[5]
It was evident that Schlieffen was very much involved in preparing and planning for future combat. He considered one of his primary tasks was to prepare the young officers to act responsibly in planning manoeuvres but also to direct these movements after the planning had taken place.[28]
With regards to Schlieffen's tactics, General
General
Long after his death, the
Quotations
- "A man is born, and not made, a strategist."—Schlieffen
- "To win, we must endeavour to be the stronger of the two at the point of impact. Our only hope of this lies in making our own choice of operations, not in waiting passively for whatever the enemy chooses for us." — Schlieffen
Honours and awards
- German decorations[33]
- Prussia:
- Iron Cross (1870), 1st and 2nd Classes
- Grand Cross of the Red Eagle, with Oak Leaves, Swords on Ring and Crown
- Knight of the Prussian Crown, 1st Class
- Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern
- Knight of the Black Eagle, with Collar and Diamonds
- War Commemorative Medal of 1870/71
- Kaiser Wilhelm I Centenary Medal
- Hohenzollern: Cross of Honour of the Princely House Order of Hohenzollern, 1st Class
- Baden:[34]
- Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion, with Oak Leaves, 1893
- Knight of the House Order of Fidelity, 1899
- Bavaria:
- Hesse and by Rhine: Grand Cross of the Ludwig Order, 9 April 1903[36]
- Lippe: Cross of Honour of the House Order of Lippe, 1st Class
- Mecklenburg:
- Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown, with Golden Crown
- Military Merit Cross, 1st Class (Schwerin)
- Oldenburg: Grand Commander of Honour of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig
- Saxony:
- Grand Cross of the Albert Order, with Golden Star, 1891[37]
- Knight of the Rue Crown
- Württemberg:[38]
- Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown, 1893
- Grand Cross of the Friedrich Order, 1893
- Grand Cross of the Military Merit Order, 28 March 1903
- Foreign decorations[33]
- Austria-Hungary:[39]
- Knight of the Iron Crown, 1st Class, 1890
- Grand Cross of the Imperial Order of Leopold, 1891; in Diamonds, 1895
- Grand Cross of St. Stephen, 1897
- French Empire: Officer of the Legion of Honour
- Kingdom of Italy:
- Netherlands: Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion
- Ottoman Empire: Order of Osmanieh, 1st Class in Diamonds
- Persian Empire:
- Order of the August Portrait
- Order of the Lion and the Sun, 3rd Class
- Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky, 1897
Notes
- Gräfin.
Footnotes
- ^ "Alfred Schlieffen, Graf von." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition (November 2011): 1.
- ^ "Alfred von Schlieffen | Biography & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Dupuy 1977, p. 128.
- ^ a b c V. J. Curtis, "Understanding Schlieffen," The Army Doctrine and Training Bulletin 6, no. 3 (2003), p. 56.
- ^ a b c d Dupuy 1977, p. 129.
- ^ Dominik J. Schaller: Ich glaube, dass die Nation als solche vernichtet werden muss: Kolonialkrieg und Völkermord in „Deutsch-Südwestafrika“ 1904–1907. In: Journal of Genocide Research. Band 6, Nr. 3, S. 398
- ^ "Less Than Human - Pages 20-40".
- ^ ISBN 978-0-801-47293-0.
- ^ Zuber 2002, pp. 138–139.
- ^ a b Zuber 2002, p. 139.
- ^ Zuber 2004, p. 195.
- ^ Zuber 2002, p. 46.
- ^ Zuber 2002, p. 212.
- ^ Zuber 2002, p. 140.
- ^ Zuber 2011, pp. 54–57.
- ^ Schuette 2014, p. 38.
- ^ Stoneman 2006, pp. 142–143.
- ^ Holmes 2014, pp. 205.
- ^ Dupuy 1977, p. 135.
- ^ Walter 1967, p. 132.
- ^ a b Zuber 2010, Chapter 1905/06.
- ^ Holmes 2014, pp. 206.
- ^ Walter 1967, p. 138.
- ^ Walter 1967, p. 139.
- ^ Otto, Helmut (July 1979). "Alfred Graf von Schlieffen: Generalstabschef und Militärtheoretiker des Imperialistischen Deutschen Kaiserreiches Zwischen Weltmachstreben und Revolutionsfurcht". Revue Internationale d'Histoire Militaire. 43: 74.
- ISBN 0-691-09235-4.
- ^ Dupuy 1977, p. 132.
- ^ Dupuy 1977, p. 133.
- ISBN 978-1-78289-218-2.
- ISBN 978-1-4008-3546-1.
- Hart, B.H.L., The Rommel Papers, p.4 (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1953) (retrieved Jan. 1, 2024).
- ^ Linge, Heinz, With Hitler to the End: The Memoirs of Hitler's Valet, p.150 (New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2009) (retrieved Jan. 1, 2024).
- ^ a b "Militärisches Gefolge Seiner Majestät des Kaisers und Königs", Rangliste de Königlich Preußischen Armee (in German), Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler & Sohn, 1912, p. 6 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden (1902), "Großherzogliche Orden" pp. 69, 181
- ^ a b Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Bayern (1908), "Königliche Orden" pp. 10, 26
- ^ "Ludewigs-orden", Großherzoglich Hessische Ordensliste (in German), Darmstadt: Staatsverlag, 1909, p. 14 – via hathitrust.org
- ^ Sachsen (1901). "Königlich Orden". Staatshandbuch für den Königreich Sachsen: 1901. Dresden: Heinrich. p. 162 – via hathitrust.org.
- ^ "Königliche Orden", Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreich Württemberg, Stuttgart: Landesamt, 1907, pp. 49, 77, 121
- ^ "Ritter-Orden", Hof- und Staatshandbuch der Österreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie, 1913, pp. 49, 61, 95, retrieved 14 January 2021
References
- Dupuy, T. N. (1977). A Genius for War: The German Army and General Staff. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-351114-6.
- Holmes, T. M. (April 2014). "Absolute Numbers: The Schlieffen Plan as a Critique of German Strategy in 1914". War in History. 21 (2). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage: 193–213. S2CID 159518049.
- Schuette, R. C. (2014). Effects of Decentralised Execution on the German Army During the Marne Campaign of 1914 (MA thesis). Fort Leavenworth, KS: US Army Command and General Staff College. OCLC 913595153. Archived from the originalon 12 February 2020. Retrieved 21 November 2018.
- Stoneman, M. R. (2006). Wilhelm Groener, Officering and the Schlieffen Plan (PhD thesis). Georgetown University. OCLC 173237457. Retrieved 23 November 2018.
- Walter, Goerlitz (1967). History of The German General Staff. New York: Frederick A. Praeger.
- Zuber, Terence (2002). Inventing the Schlieffen Plan: German War Planning, 1871–1914. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-925016-2.
- Zuber, Terence (2004). German War Planning, 1891-1914: Sources and Interpretations. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-108-2.Cannae
- Zuber, T. (2010). The Real German War Plan 1904–14 (e-book ed.). New York: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-75247-290-4.
- Zuber, T. (2011). The Real German War Plan 1904–14. Stroud: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-5664-5.
Further reading
- Foley, R. T. (2006) [2003]. Alfred von Schlieffen's Military Writings. London: Frank Cass. ISBN 0-71464-999-6.
- Foley, Robert T. "The Real Schlieffen Plan", War in History, Vol. 13, Issue 1. (2006), pp. 91–115.
- "Alfred Schlieffen, Graf von." Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th Edition (November 2011): 1
- Schlieffen, A. von (1931). Cannae (authorised trans. ed.). Fort Leavenworth, KS: The Command and General Staff School Press. ]
- Wallach, Jehuda L., The dogma of the battle of annihilation: the theories of Clausewitz and Schlieffen and their impact on the German conduct of two world wars. (Westport, Conn.; London : Greenwood, 1986).
External links
- Fieldmarshal Count Alfred von Schlieffen's book Cannae
- Newspaper clippings about Alfred von Schlieffen in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW