Ibn al-Haytham
Alhazen Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham | |
---|---|
ابن الهيثم | |
intromission theory of visual perception, moon illusion, experimental science, scientific methodology,[4] animal psychology[5] | |
Scientific career | |
Fields | Physics, mathematics, astronomy |
Ḥasan Ibn al-Haytham (
Ibn al-Haytham was the first to correctly explain the theory of vision,
Born in Basra, he spent most of his productive period in the Fatimid capital of Cairo and earned his living authoring various treatises and tutoring members of the nobilities.[24] Ibn al-Haytham is sometimes given the byname al-Baṣrī after his birthplace,[25] or al-Miṣrī ("the Egyptian").[26][27] Al-Haytham was dubbed the "Second Ptolemy" by Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi[28] and "The Physicist" by John Peckham.[29] Ibn al-Haytham paved the way for the modern science of physical optics.[30]
Biography
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was born c. 965 to a family of
Upon his return to Cairo, he was given an administrative post. After he proved unable to fulfill this task as well, he contracted the ire of the caliph al-Hakim,[42] and is said to have been forced into hiding until the caliph's death in 1021, after which his confiscated possessions were returned to him.[43] Legend has it that Alhazen feigned madness and was kept under house arrest during this period.[44] During this time, he wrote his influential Book of Optics. Alhazen continued to live in Cairo, in the neighborhood of the famous University of al-Azhar, and lived from the proceeds of his literary production[45] until his death in c. 1040.[41] (A copy of Apollonius' Conics, written in Ibn al-Haytham's own handwriting exists in Aya Sofya: (MS Aya Sofya 2762, 307 fob., dated Safar 415 A.H. [1024]).)[46]: Note 2
Among his students were Sorkhab (Sohrab), a Persian from
]Book of Optics
Alhazen's most famous work is his seven-volume treatise on optics Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics), written from 1011 to 1021.[48] In it, Ibn al-Haytham was the first to explain that vision occurs when light reflects from an object and then passes to one's eyes,[14] and to argue that vision occurs in the brain, pointing to observations that it is subjective and affected by personal experience.[15]
Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century.[49][a]
This work enjoyed a great reputation during the Middle Ages. The Latin version of De aspectibus was translated at the end of the 14th century into Italian vernacular, under the title De li aspecti.[50]
It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, with the title Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus (English: Treasury of Optics: seven books by the Arab Alhazen, first edition; by the same, on twilight and the height of clouds).[51] Risner is also the author of the name variant "Alhazen"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen.[52] Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in the
Theory of optics
Two major theories on vision prevailed in
What Alhazen needed was for each point on an object to correspond to one point only on the eye.
Alhazen showed through experiment that light travels in straight lines, and carried out various experiments with
Alhazen studied the process of sight, the structure of the eye, image formation in the eye, and the
In a more detailed account of Ibn al-Haytham's contribution to the study of binocular vision based on Lejeune[66] and Sabra,[67] Raynaud[68] showed that the concepts of correspondence, homonymous and crossed diplopia were in place in Ibn al-Haytham's optics. But contrary to Howard, he explained why Ibn al-Haytham did not give the circular figure of the horopter and why, by reasoning experimentally, he was in fact closer to the discovery of Panum's fusional area than that of the Vieth-Müller circle. In this regard, Ibn al-Haytham's theory of binocular vision faced two main limits: the lack of recognition of the role of the retina, and obviously the lack of an experimental investigation of ocular tracts.
Alhazen's most original contribution was that, after describing how he thought the eye was anatomically constructed, he went on to consider how this anatomy would behave functionally as an optical system.
Alhazen's synthesis of light and vision adhered to the Aristotelian scheme, exhaustively describing the process of vision in a logical, complete fashion.[74]
His research in
Law of reflection
Alhazen was the first physicist to give complete statement of the law of reflection.[75][76][77] He was first to state that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface all lie in a same plane perpendicular to reflecting plane.[17][78]
Alhazen's problem
His work on catoptrics in Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's problem, first formulated by Ptolemy in 150 AD. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular billiard table at which a player must aim a cue ball at a given point to make it bounce off the table edge and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, "Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer." This leads to an equation of the fourth degree.[79] This eventually led Alhazen to derive a formula for the sum of fourth powers, where previously only the formulas for the sums of squares and cubes had been stated. His method can be readily generalized to find the formula for the sum of any integral powers, although he did not himself do this (perhaps because he only needed the fourth power to calculate the volume of the paraboloid he was interested in). He used his result on sums of integral powers to perform what would now be called an integration, where the formulas for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.[80] Alhazen eventually solved the problem using conic sections and a geometric proof. His solution was extremely long and complicated and may not have been understood by mathematicians reading him in Latin translation. Later mathematicians used
Camera Obscura
The
Ibn al-Haytham used a camera obscura mainly to observe a partial solar eclipse.[89] In his essay, Ibn al-Haytham writes that he observed the sickle-like shape of the sun at the time of an eclipse. The introduction reads as follows: "The image of the sun at the time of the eclipse, unless it is total, demonstrates that when its light passes through a narrow, round hole and is cast on a plane opposite to the hole it takes on the form of a moonsickle."
It is admitted that his findings solidified the importance in the history of the camera obscura[90] but this treatise is important in many other respects.
Ancient optics and medieval optics were divided into optics and burning mirrors. Optics proper mainly focused on the study of vision, while burning mirrors focused on the properties of light and luminous rays. On the shape of the eclipse is probably one of the first attempts made by Ibn al-Haytham to articulate these two sciences.
Very often Ibn al-Haytham's discoveries benefited from the intersection of mathematical and experimental contributions. This is the case with On the shape of the eclipse. Besides the fact that this treatise allowed more people to study partial eclipses of the sun, it especially allowed to better understand how the camera obscura works. This treatise is a physico-mathematical study of image formation inside the camera obscura. Ibn al-Haytham takes an experimental approach, and determines the result by varying the size and the shape of the aperture, the focal length of the camera, the shape and intensity of the light source.[91]
In his work he explains the inversion of the image in the camera obscura,[92] the fact that the image is similar to the source when the hole is small, but also the fact that the image can differ from the source when the hole is large. All these results are produced by using a point analysis of the image.[93]
Refractometer
In the seventh tract of his book of optics, Alhazen described an apparatus for experimenting with various cases of refraction, in order to investigate the relations between the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction and the angle of deflection. This apparatus was a modified version of an apparatus used by Ptolemy for similar purpose.[94][95][96]
Unconscious inference
Alhazen basically states the concept of unconscious inference in his discussion of colour before adding that the inferential step between sensing colour and differentiating it is shorter than the time taken between sensing and any other visible characteristic (aside from light), and that "time is so short as not to be clearly apparent to the beholder." Naturally, this suggests that the colour and form are perceived elsewhere. Alhazen goes on to say that information must travel to the central nerve cavity for processing and:
the sentient organ does not sense the forms that reach it from the visible objects until after it has been affected by these forms; thus it does not sense color as color or light as light until after it has been affected by the form of color or light. Now the affectation received by the sentient organ from the form of color or of light is a certain change; and change must take place in time; …..and it is in the time during which the form extends from the sentient organ's surface to the cavity of the common nerve, and in (the time) following that, that the sensitive faculty, which exists in the whole of the sentient body will perceive color as color…Thus the last sentient's perception of color as such and of light as such takes place at a time following that in which the form arrives from the surface of the sentient organ to the cavity of the common nerve.[97]
Color constancy
Alhazen explained color constancy by observing that the light reflected from an object is modified by the object's color. He explained that the quality of the light and the color of the object are mixed, and the visual system separates light and color. In Book II, Chapter 3 he writes:
Again the light does not travel from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the color, nor does the form of the color pass from the colored object to the eye unaccompanied by the light. Neither the form of the light nor that of the color existing in the colored object can pass except as mingled together and the last sentient can only perceive them as mingled together. Nevertheless, the sentient perceives that the visible object is luminous and that the light seen in the object is other than the color and that these are two properties.[98]
Other contributions
The Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) describes several experimental observations that Alhazen made and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments with
Sudanese psychologist Omar Khaleefa has argued that Alhazen should be considered the founder of experimental psychology, for his pioneering work on the psychology of visual perception and optical illusions.[101] Khaleefa has also argued that Alhazen should also be considered the "founder of psychophysics", a sub-discipline and precursor to modern psychology.[101] Although Alhazen made many subjective reports regarding vision, there is no evidence that he used quantitative psychophysical techniques and the claim has been rebuffed.[102]
Alhazen offered an explanation of the
Scientific method
Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. The duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and ... attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.
— Alhazen[67]
An aspect associated with Alhazen's optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation (i'tibar)(Arabic: اختبار) and controlled testing in his scientific inquiries. Moreover, his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics (ilm tabi'i) with mathematics (ta'alim; geometry in particular). This mathematical-physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions in Kitab al-Manazir (The Optics; De aspectibus or Perspectivae)[107] and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics (the study of the reflection and refraction of light, respectively).[108]
According to Matthias Schramm,
Other works on physics
Optical treatises
Besides the Book of Optics, Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject, including his Risala fi l-Daw' (Treatise on Light). He investigated the properties of luminance, the rainbow, eclipses, twilight, and moonlight. Experiments with mirrors and the refractive interfaces between air, water, and glass cubes, hemispheres, and quarter-spheres provided the foundation for his theories on catoptrics.[113]
Celestial physics
Alhazen discussed the
He also wrote Maqala fi daw al-qamar (On the Light of the Moon).
Mechanics
In his work, Alhazen discussed theories on the
Astronomical works
On the Configuration of the World
In his On the Configuration of the World Alhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth:
The earth as a whole is a round sphere whose center is the center of the world. It is stationary in its [the world's] middle, fixed in it and not moving in any direction nor moving with any of the varieties of motion, but always at rest.[115]
The book is a non-technical explanation of Ptolemy's Almagest, which was eventually translated into Hebrew and Latin in the 13th and 14th centuries and subsequently had an influence on astronomers such as Georg von Peuerbach[116] during the European Middle Ages and Renaissance.[117]
Doubts Concerning Ptolemy
In his Al-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs, variously translated as Doubts Concerning Ptolemy or Aporias against Ptolemy, published at some time between 1025 and 1028, Alhazen criticized Ptolemy's Almagest, Planetary Hypotheses, and Optics, pointing out various contradictions he found in these works, particularly in astronomy. Ptolemy's Almagest concerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets, whereas the Hypotheses concerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets. Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always agree with each other, arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error, but Alhazen was particularly scathing in his criticism of the inherent contradictions in Ptolemy's works.[118] He considered that some of the mathematical devices Ptolemy introduced into astronomy, especially the equant, failed to satisfy the physical requirement of uniform circular motion, and noted the absurdity of relating actual physical motions to imaginary mathematical points, lines and circles:[119]
Ptolemy assumed an arrangement (hay'a) that cannot exist, and the fact that this arrangement produces in his imagination the motions that belong to the planets does not free him from the error he committed in his assumed arrangement, for the existing motions of the planets cannot be the result of an arrangement that is impossible to exist... [F]or a man to imagine a circle in the heavens, and to imagine the planet moving in it does not bring about the planet's motion.[120]
Having pointed out the problems, Alhazen appears to have intended to resolve the contradictions he pointed out in Ptolemy in a later work. Alhazen believed there was a "true configuration" of the planets that Ptolemy had failed to grasp. He intended to complete and repair Ptolemy's system, not to replace it completely.[118] In the Doubts Concerning Ptolemy Alhazen set out his views on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge and the need to question existing authorities and theories:
Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error...[67]
He held that the criticism of existing theories—which dominated this book—holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge.
Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets
Alhazen's The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets was written c. 1038. Only one damaged manuscript has been found, with only the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from his Doubts on Ptolemy, Alhazen described a new, geometry-based planetary model, describing the motions of the planets in terms of spherical geometry, infinitesimal geometry and trigonometry. He kept a geocentric universe and assumed that celestial motions are uniformly circular, which required the inclusion of
Other astronomical works
Alhazen wrote a total of twenty-five astronomical works, some concerning technical issues such as Exact Determination of the Meridian, a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation, a third group concerning various astronomical problems and questions such as the location of the Milky Way; Alhazen made the first systematic effort of evaluating the Milky Way's parallax, combining Ptolemy's data and his own. He concluded that the parallax is (probably very much) smaller than Lunar parallax, and the Milky way should be a celestial object. Though he was not the first who argued that the Milky Way does not belong to the atmosphere, he is the first who did quantitative analysis for the claim.[122] The fourth group consists of ten works on astronomical theory, including the Doubts and Model of the Motions discussed above.[123]
Mathematical works
In
He developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula.[125]
Geometry
Alhazen explored what is now known as the Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth postulate in Euclid's Elements, using a proof by contradiction,[126] and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry.[127] He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the "Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral".[128] He was criticised by Omar Khayyam who pointed that Aristotle had condemned the use of motion in geometry.[129]
In elementary geometry, Alhazen attempted to solve the problem of
Number theory
Alhazen's contributions to number theory include his work on perfect numbers. In his Analysis and Synthesis, he may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2n−1(2n − 1) where 2n − 1 is prime, but he was not able to prove this result; Euler later proved it in the 18th century, and it is now called the Euclid–Euler theorem.[130]
Alhazen solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson's theorem. In his Opuscula, Alhazen considers the solution of a system of congruences, and gives two general methods of solution. His first method, the canonical method, involved Wilson's theorem, while his second method involved a version of the Chinese remainder theorem.[130]
Calculus
Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula.[132]
Other works
Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals
Alhazen also wrote a Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals, although no copies have survived. It appears to have been concerned with the question of whether animals could react to music, for example whether a camel would increase or decrease its pace.
Engineering
In
Philosophy
In his Treatise on Place, Alhazen disagreed with
Alhazen also discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhazen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."[135] Alhazen came up with many theories that shattered what was known of reality at the time. These ideas of optics and perspective did not just tie into physical science, rather existential philosophy. This led to religious viewpoints being upheld to the point that there is an observer and their perspective, which in this case is reality.[40]
Theology
Alhazen was a Muslim and most sources report that he was a Sunni and a follower of the
Alhazen wrote a work on Islamic theology in which he discussed prophethood and developed a system of philosophical criteria to discern its false claimants in his time.[142] He also wrote a treatise entitled Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation in which he discussed finding the
There are occasional references to theology or religious sentiment in his technical works, e.g. in Doubts Concerning Ptolemy:
Truth is sought for its own sake ... Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough. For the truths are plunged in obscurity. ... God, however, has not preserved the scientist from error and has not safeguarded science from shortcomings and faults. If this had been the case, scientists would not have disagreed upon any point of science...[144]
In The Winding Motion:
From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences.[145]
Regarding the relation of objective truth and God:
I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.[146]
Legacy
Alhazen made significant contributions to optics, number theory, geometry, astronomy and natural philosophy. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment.
His main work,
Although only one commentary on Alhazen's optics has survived the Islamic Middle Ages, Geoffrey Chaucer mentions the work in The Canterbury Tales:[157]
"They spoke of Alhazen and Vitello,
And Aristotle, who wrote, in their lives,
On strange mirrors and optical instruments."
The
The 2015 International Year of Light celebrated the 1000th anniversary of the works on optics by Ibn Al-Haytham.[162]
Commemorations
In 2014, the "Hiding in the Light" episode of Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, presented by Neil deGrasse Tyson, focused on the accomplishments of Ibn al-Haytham. He was voiced by Alfred Molina in the episode.
Over forty years previously, Jacob Bronowski presented Alhazen's work in a similar television documentary (and the corresponding book), The Ascent of Man. In episode 5 (The Music of the Spheres), Bronowski remarked that in his view, Alhazen was "the one really original scientific mind that Arab culture produced", whose theory of optics was not improved on till the time of Newton and Leibniz.
H. J. J. Winter, a British historian of science, summing up the importance of Ibn al-Haytham in the history of physics wrote:
After the death of Archimedes no really great physicist appeared until Ibn al-Haytham. If, therefore, we confine our interest only to the history of physics, there is a long period of over twelve hundred years during which the Golden Age of Greece gave way to the era of Muslim Scholasticism, and the experimental spirit of the noblest physicist of Antiquity lived again in the Arab Scholar from Basra.[163]
List of works
According to medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other subjects.[166] Not all his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of the ones that have are given below.[167]
- Book of Optics (كتاب المناظر)
- Analysis and Synthesis (مقالة في التحليل والتركيب)
- Balance of Wisdom (ميزان الحكمة)
- Corrections to the Almagest (تصويبات على المجسطي)
- Discourse on Place (مقالة في المكان)
- Exact Determination of the Pole (التحديد الدقيق للقطب)
- Exact Determination of the Meridian (رسالة في الشفق)
- Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation (كيفية حساب اتجاه القبلة)
- Horizontal Sundials (المزولة الأفقية)
- Hour Lines (خطوط الساعة)
- Doubts Concerning Ptolemy (شكوك على بطليموس)
- Maqala fi'l-Qarastun (مقالة في قرسطون)
- On Completion of the Conics (إكمال المخاريط)
- On Seeing the Stars (رؤية الكواكب)
- On Squaring the Circle (مقالة فی تربیع الدائرة)
- On the Burning Sphere (المرايا المحرقة بالدوائر)
- On the Configuration of the World (تكوين العالم)
- On the Form of Eclipse (مقالة فی صورة الکسوف)
- On the Light of Stars (مقالة في ضوء النجوم)[168]
- On the Light of the Moon (مقالة في ضوء القمر)
- On the Milky Way (مقالة في درب التبانة)
- On the Nature of Shadows (كيفيات الإظلال)
- On the Rainbow and Halo (مقالة في قوس قزح)
- Opuscula (Minor Works)
- Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Almagest (تحليل شكوك حول الجست)
- Resolution of Doubts Concerning the Winding Motion
- The Correction of the Operations in Astronomy (تصحيح العمليات في الفلك)
- The Different Heights of the Planets (اختلاف ارتفاع الكواكب)
- The Direction of Mecca (اتجاه القبلة)
- The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets (نماذج حركات الكواكب السبعة)
- The Model of the Universe (نموذج الكون)
- The Motion of the Moon (حركة القمر)
- The Ratios of Hourly Arcs to their Heights
- The Winding Motion (الحركة المتعرجة)
- Treatise on Light (رسالة في الضوء)[169]
- Treatise on Place (رسالة في المكان)
- Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals (تأثير اللحون الموسيقية في النفوس الحيوانية)
- كتاب في تحليل المسائل الهندسية (A book in engineering analysis)
- الجامع في أصول الحساب (The whole in the assets of the account)
- قول فی مساحة الکرة (Say in the sphere)
- القول المعروف بالغریب فی حساب المعاملات (Saying the unknown in the calculation of transactions)
- خواص المثلث من جهة العمود (Triangle properties from the side of the column)
- رسالة فی مساحة المسجم المکافی (A message in the free space)
- شرح أصول إقليدس (Explain the origins of Euclid)
- المرايا المحرقة بالقطوع (The burning mirrors of the rainbow)
- مقالة في القرصتن (Treatise on Centers of Gravity)
Lost works
- A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book[170]
- Treatise on Burning Mirrors
- Treatise on the Nature of [the Organ of] Sight and on How Vision is Achieved Through It
See also
- "Hiding in the Light"
- History of mathematics
- Theoretical physics
- History of optics
- History of physics
- History of science
- History of scientific method
- Hockney–Falco thesis
- Mathematics in medieval Islam
- Physics in medieval Islam
- Science in the medieval Islamic world
- Fatima al-Fihri
- Islamic Golden Age
Notes
- ^ A. Mark Smith has determined that there were at least two translators, based on their facility with Arabic; the first, more experienced scholar began the translation at the beginning of Book One, and handed it off in the middle of Chapter Three of Book Three. Smith 2001 91 Volume 1: Commentary and Latin text pp.xx-xxi. See also his 2006, 2008, 2010 translations.
References
- ^ a b Lorch, Richard (1 February 2017). Ibn al-Haytham: Arab astronomer and mathematician. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 August 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- ^ O'Connor & Robertson 1999.
- ^ El-Bizri 2010, p. 11: "Ibn al-Haytham's groundbreaking studies in optics, including his research in catoptrics and dioptrics (respectively the sciences investigating the principles and instruments pertaining to the reflection and refraction of light), were principally gathered in his monumental opus: Kitåb al-manåóir (The Optics; De Aspectibus or Perspectivae; composed between 1028 CE and 1038 CE)."
- ^ Rooney 2012, p. 39: "As a rigorous experimental physicist, he is sometimes credited with inventing the scientific method."
- ^ Baker 2012, p. 449: "As shown earlier, Ibn al-Haytham was among the first scholars to experiment with animal psychology.
- ^ Also Alhacen, Avennathan, Avenetan, etc.; the identity of "Alhazen" with Ibn al-Haytham al-Basri "was identified towards the end of the 19th century". (Vernet 1996, p. 788)
- ^ "Ibn al-Haytham". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 23 June 2019.
- ^ Esposito, John L. (2000). The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 192.: "Ibn al-Haytham (d. 1039), known in the West as Alhazan, was a leading Arab mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. His optical compendium, Kitab al-Manazir, is the greatest medieval work on optics."
- ^ a b For the description of his main fields, see e.g. Vernet 1996, p. 788 ("He is one of the principal Arab mathematicians and, without any doubt, the best physicist.") Sabra 2008, Kalin, Ayduz & Dagli 2009 ("Ibn al-Ḥaytam was an eminent eleventh-century Arab optician, geometer, arithmetician, algebraist, astronomer, and engineer."), Dallal 1999 ("Ibn al-Haytham (d. 1039), known in the West as Alhazan, was a leading Arab mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. His optical compendium, Kitab al-Manazir, is the greatest medieval work on optics.")
- PMID 18822953.
- ^ "International Year of Light: Ibn al Haytham, pioneer of modern optics celebrated at UNESCO". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
- ^ a b Al-Khalili, Jim (4 January 2009). "The 'first true scientist'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2018.
- ^ Selin 2008: "The three most recognizable Islamic contributors to meteorology were: the Alexandrian mathematician/ astronomer Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen 965–1039), the Arab-speaking Persian physician Ibn Sina (Avicenna 980–1037), and the Spanish Moorish physician/jurist Ibn Rushd (Averroes; 1126–1198)." He has been dubbed the "father of modern optics" by the UNESCO. "Impact of Science on Society". UNESCO. 26–27: 140. 1976. Archived from the original on 5 February 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2019..
"International Year of Light – Ibn Al-Haytham and the Legacy of Arabic Optics". www.light2015.org. Archived from the original on 1 October 2014. Retrieved 9 October 2017..
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- ^ German physicist Eilhard Wiedemann first provided an abridged German translation of On the shape of the eclipse: Eilhard Wiedemann (1914). "Über der Camera obscura bei Ibn al Haiṭam". Sitzungsberichte phys.-med. Sozietät in Erlangen. 46: 155–169. The work is now available in full: Raynaud 2016.
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- ^ See, for example,De aspectibus Book 7 Archived 18 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine, for his experiments in refraction
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- ^ a b El-Bizri 2006.
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- ^ Faruqi 2006, pp. 395–96: In seventeenth century Europe the problems formulated by Ibn al-Haytham (965–1041) became known as 'Alhazen's problem'. ... Al-Haytham's contributions to geometry and number theory went well beyond the Archimedean tradition. Al-Haytham also worked on analytical geometry and the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry. Subsequently, this work led in pure mathematics to the harmonious fusion of algebra and geometry that was epitomised by Descartes in geometric analysis and by Newton in the calculus. Al-Haytham was a scientist who made major contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics and astronomy during the latter half of the tenth century.
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- ^ Sabra 2007, pp. 122, 128–29. & Grant 1974, p. 392 notes the Book of Optics has also been denoted as Opticae Thesaurus Alhazen Arabis, as De Aspectibus, and also as Perspectiva
- ^ Lindberg 1996, p. 11, passim.
- ^ Authier 2013, p. 23: "Alhazen's works in turn inspired many scientists of the Middle Ages, such as the English bishop, Robert Grosseteste (c. 1175–1253), and the English Franciscan, Roger Bacon (c. 1214–1294), Erazmus Ciolek Witelo, or Witelon (ca 1230* 1280), a Silesian-born Polish friar, philosopher and scholar, published in ca 1270 a treatise on optics, Perspectiva, largely based on Alhazen's works."
- ^ Magill & Aves 1998, p. 66: "Roger Bacon, John Peckham, and Giambattista della Porta are only some of the many thinkers who were influenced by Alhazen's work."
- ^ Zewail & Thomas 2010, p. 5: "The Latin translation of Alhazen's work influenced scientists and philosophers such as (Roger) Bacon and da Vinci, and formed the foundation for the work by mathematicians like Kepler, Descartes and Huygens..."
- ^ El-Bizri 2010, p. 12: "This [Latin] version of Ibn al-Haytham's Optics, which became available in print, was read and consulted by scientists and philosophers of the caliber of Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, and Huygens as discussed by Nader El-Bizri."
- ^ Magill & Aves 1998, p. 66: "Sabra discusses in detail the impact of Alhazen's ideas on the optical discoveries of such men as Descartes and Christiaan Huygens; see also El-Bizri 2005a."
- ^ El-Bizri 2010, p. 12.
- ^ Magill & Aves 1998, p. 66: "Even Kepler, however, used some of Alhazen's ideas, for example, the one-to-one correspondence between points on the object and points in the eye. It would not be going too far to say that Alhazen's optical theories defined the scope and goals of the field from his day to ours."
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- Sabra, A. I. (1978b), "An Eleventh-Century Refutation of Ptolemy's Planetary Theory", in Hilfstein, Erna; Czartoryski, Paweł; Grande, Frank D. (eds.), Science and History: Studies in Honor of Edward Rosen, Studia Copernicana, vol. XVI, Ossolineum, Wrocław, pp. 117–31
- OCLC 165564751
- OCLC 29847104
- S2CID 117426616
- Sabra, A. I. (October–December 2003), "Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician", Harvard Magazine, archived from the original on 27 September 2007, retrieved 23 January 2008
- JSTOR 20617660, retrieved 22 January 2014
- Sabra, A. I. (2008) [1970–80], "Ibn Al-Haytham, Abū ʿAlī Al-Ḥasan Ibn Al-Ḥasan", Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, Charles Scribner's Sons, archived from the original on 17 May 2016, retrieved 28 October 2010
- Sambursky, Samuel (1974), Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists, Pica Press, pp. 51, ISBN 0-87663-712-8
- Sardar, Ziauddin (1998), "Science in Islamic philosophy", Islamic Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, archived from the original on 26 May 2018, retrieved 3 February 2008
- Selin, Helaine, ed. (2008), "M", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures, vol. 1, Springer, p. 1667, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2
- Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2001), Alhacen's theory of visual perception: a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of the first three books of Alhacen's De aspectibus, the medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitab al-Manazir, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 91–4, 91–5, translated by Smith, A. Mark, Philadelphia: )
- Smith, A. Mark (June 2004), "What is the History of Medieval Optics Really About?" (PDF), Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 148 (2): 180–94, PMID 15338543, archived from the original(PDF) on 18 October 2011
- Smith, A. Mark (2005), "The Alhacenian Account of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, 15 (2), Cambridge University Press: 219–40, S2CID 171003284
- Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2006), Alhacen on the principles of reflection : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn-al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 95–4, 95–5, translated by Smith, A. Mark, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society (Books 4–5 (2006) 95 4 – Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine; 95 5 – Vol 2 English translation IV: TOC pp. 289–94, V: TOC pp. 377–84, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine)
- Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2008), Alhacen on Image-formation and distortion in mirrors: a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 6 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn-al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. 98–1, translated by Smith, A. Mark, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society (Book 6 (2008) 98 (#1, section 1) – Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine; 98 (#1, section 2) – Vol 2 English translation VI:TOC pp. 155–160, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine)
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Further reading
Primary
- Sabra, A. I, ed. (1983), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
- Sabra, A. I, ed. (2002), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV–V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
- Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2006), "Alhacen on the principles of reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols.", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 95 (2–3), Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society
{{citation}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) 2 vols: . (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2006 – 95(#2) Books 4–5 Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine; 95(#3) Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine - Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2008) Alhacen on Image-formation and distortion in mirrors : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 6 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols: Vol 1 98(#1, section 1 – Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text); 98(#1, section 2 – Vol 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2008. Book 6 (2008) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine; Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2010) Alhacen on Refraction : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols: 100(#3, section 1 – Vol 1, Introduction and Latin text); 100(#3, section 2 – Vol 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2010. Book 7 (2010) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JSTOR Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine;Vol 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. via JSTOR Archived 6 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine
Secondary
- Belting, Hans, Afterthoughts on Alhazen's Visual Theory and Its Presence in the Pictorial Theory of Western Perspective, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies in the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42.
- CNRS: 201–26
- ISBN 978-3-319-33466-0
- Falco, Charles M. (12–15 February 2007), Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Modern Image Analysis (PDF), presented at a plenary session at the International Conference on Information Sciences, Signal Processing and its Applications, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 December 2020, retrieved 23 January 2008
- Gazı Topdemır, Hüseyın (2000). İBNÜ'l-HEYSEM – An article published in 21st volume of Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam (in Turkish). Vol. 21. Istanbul: ISBN 978-97-53-89448-7. Archivedfrom the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
- Graham, Mark. How Islam Created the Modern World. Amana Publications, 2006.
- Omar, Saleh Beshara (June 1975), Ibn al-Haytham and Greek optics: a comparative study in scientific methodology, PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations
- Roshdi Rashed, Optics and Mathematics: Research on the history of scientific thought in Arabic, Variorum reprints, Aldershot, 1992.
- Roshdi Rashed, Geometry and Dioptrics the tenth century: Ibn Sahl al-Quhi and Ibn al-Haytham (in French), Les Belles Lettres, Paris, 1993
- Roshdi Rashed, Infinitesimal Mathematics, vols. 1–5, al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, London, 1993–2006
- ISBN 978-0-262-19557-7, archivedfrom the original on 19 April 2017, retrieved 18 April 2017
- Siegfried Zielinski & Franziska Latell, How One Sees, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies in the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. Buchhandlung Walther-König - KWB 45: Variantology 4
External links
- Works by Ibn al-Haytham at Open Library
- Langermann, Y. Tzvi (2007). "Ibn al-Haytham: Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan". In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 556–67. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
- 'A Brief Introduction on Ibn al-Haytham' based on a lecture delivered at the Royal Society in London by Nader El-Bizri
- Ibn al-Haytham on two Iraqi banknotes
- The Miracle of Light – a UNESCO article on Ibn al-Haytham
- Biography from Malaspina Global Portal
- Short biographies on several "Muslim Heroes and Personalities" including Ibn al-Haytham
- Biography from ioNET at the Wayback Machine (archived 13 October 1999)
- "Biography from the BBC". Archived from the original on 11 February 2006. Retrieved 16 September 2008.
- Biography from Trinity College (Connecticut)
- Biography from Molecular Expressions
- The First True Scientist from BBC News
- Over the Moon From The UNESCO Courier on the occasion of the International Year of Astronomy 2009
- The Mechanical Water Clock Of Ibn Al-Haytham, Muslim Heritage
- Alhazen's (1572) Opticae thesaurus Archived 24 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine (English) – digital facsimile from the Linda Hall Library