Ali
Ali عَلِيّ | |
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Uthman ibn Affan | |
Successor | Abolished position Hasan ibn Ali (as caliph) |
1st Shia imam | |
Tenure | June 632 – January 661 |
Predecessor | Established position |
Successor | Hasan ibn Ali |
Born | c. 600 CE Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia |
Died | c. 28 January 661 CE (c. 21 Ramadan 40 AH) (aged c. 60) Kufa, Rashidun Caliphate |
Burial | |
Spouse |
|
Issue | |
Fatima bint Asad | |
Religion | Islam |
Part of a series on |
Ali |
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Ali ibn Abi Talib (
Ali played a pivotal role in the early years of
Following
Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture. Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims. For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry. Sunni Muslims regard him as the last of the rashidun (lit. 'rightly-guided') caliphs, while Shia Muslims venerate him as their first imam, that is, the rightful religious and political successor to Muhammad. The shrine of Ali in Najaf, Iraq, is a major destination for Shia pilgrimage. The legacy of Ali is collected and studied in numerous books, the most famous of which is Nahj al-balagha.
Birth and early life
Ali was born in Mecca to Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib and his wife Fatima bint Asad around 600 CE.[1] His date of birth is possibly 13 Rajab,[2][3] which is the occasion celebrated annually by Shia Muslims.[4] Ali may have been the only person born inside Ka'ba,[3][2][1] the holiest site of Islam, which is located in Mecca. However, this is disputed by Sunni sources, which state Hakim ibn Hizam was also born in the Ka'ba.[5] Furthermore, Sunni scholar Al-Nawawi regards the birth of Ali in the Ka'ba as weak.[6] Ali's father was a leading member of the Banu Hashim, a clan within the Meccan tribe of Quraysh.[2] Abu Talib also raised his nephew Muhammad after his parents died. Later when Abu Talib fell into poverty, Ali was taken in at the age of about five and raised by Muhammad and his wife Khadija.[3]
Aged about eleven,
Companionship of Muhammad
When tipped off about an assassination plot in 622, Muhammad escaped to Yathrib, now known as Medina, but Ali stayed behind as his decoy.[3][12] That Ali risked his life for Muhammad is said to be the reason for the revelation of the Quranic passage, "But there is also a kind of man who gives his life away to please God."[13][14][2] This emigration marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar (AH). Ali too escaped Mecca after returning the goods entrusted to Muhammad there.[7] Later in Medina, Muhammad selected Ali as his brother when he paired Muslims for fraternity pacts.[15] Around 623–625, Muhammad gave his daughter Fatima to Ali in marriage,[16][17] aged about twenty-two at the time.[3] Muhammad had earlier turned down marriage proposals for Fatima by some of his companions, notably, Abu Bakr and Umar.[18][17][19]
Event of the mubahala
A Christian envoy from Najran, located in South Arabia, arrived in Medina circa 632 and negotiated a peace treaty with Muhammad.[20][21] The envoy also debated with Muhammad the nature of Jesus, human or divine.[22][23] Linked to this episode is verse 3:61 of the Quran,[24] which instructs Muhammad to challenge his opponents to mubahala (lit. 'mutual cursing'),[25] perhaps when their debate had reached a deadlock.[23] Even though the delegation ultimately withdrew from the challenge,[21] Muhammad appeared for the occasion of mubahala, accompanied by Ali, his wife Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Husayn.[26][15] The inclusion of these four by Muhammad in the mubahala ritual, as his witnesses and guarantors,[27][28] likely raised their religious rank within the community.[22][29] If the word 'ourselves' in the verse is a reference to Ali and Muhammad, as Shia authors argue, then the former naturally enjoys a similar religious authority in the Quran as the latter.[30][31]
Political career
In Medina, Ali acted as Muhammad's secretary and deputy.
Military career
Ali accompanied Muhammad in all of his military missions except the Expedition of Tabuk in 630, during which Ali was left behind in charge of Medina.[12] The hadith of the position is linked to this occasion, "Are you not content, Ali, to stand to me as Aaron stood to Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me?" This statement appears in the canonical Sunni sources Sahih al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim, among others.[35] For the Shia, this hadith signifies Ali's usurped right to succeed Muhammad.[36] In the absence of Muhammad, Ali commanded the expedition to Fadak in 628.[7][3]
Ali was renowned for his bravery on the battlefield,[15][7] and for his magnanimity towards his defeated enemies.[37] He was the standard-bearer in the Battle of Badr (624) and the Battle of Khaybar (628).[32] He vigorously defended Muhammad in the Battle of Uhud (625) and the Battle of Hunayn (630),[15][3] and Muslims' victory in the Battle of Khaybar has been attributed to his courage,[7] where he is said to have torn off the iron gate of the enemy fort.[15] Ali also defeated the pagan champion Amr ibn Abd Wudd in the Battle of the Trench in 627.[2] According to al-Tabari,[2] Muhammad reported hearing a divine voice at Uhud, "[There is] no sword but Zulfiqar [Ali's sword], [there is] no chivalrous youth (fata) but Ali."[34][3] Ali and another companion, Zubayr, apparently oversaw the killing of the Banu Qurayza men for treachery in 626–627,[7] though the historicity of this account has been doubted.[38][39][40]
Ghadir Khumm
On his return trip from the
The authenticity of the Ghadir Khumm is rarely contested,
Life under Rashidun Caliphs
Succession to Muhammad
Saqifa
Muhammad died in 632 when Ali was in his early thirties.
Attack on Fatima's house
While the appointment of Abu Bakr was met with little resistance in Medina,[82] the Banu Hashim and some companions of Muhammad soon gathered in protest at Ali's house.[85][86] Among them were Zubayr and Muhammad's uncle Abbas.[86] These protestors held Ali to be the rightful successor to Muhammad,[17][87] probably in reference to the Ghadir Khumm.[43] Among others,[88] al-Tabari reports that Umar then led an armed mob to Ali's residence and threatened to set the house on fire if Ali and his supporters did not pledge their allegiance to Abu Bakr.[89][17][90][91] The scene soon grew violent,[88][92] but the mob retreated after Ali's wife, Fatima, pleaded with them.[89] Abu Bakr later placed a successful boycott on the Banu Hashim,[93] who eventually abandoned their support for Ali.[93][94] Most likely, Ali himself did not pledge his allegiance to Abu Bakr until Fatima died within six months of her father, Muhammad.[95] In Shia sources, the death (and miscarriage) of the young Fatima are attributed to an attack on her house to subdue Ali by the order of Abu Bakr.[96][17][87] Sunnis categorically reject these reports,[97] but there is evidence in their early sources that a mob entered Fatima's house by force and arrested Ali,[98][99][100] an incident that Abu Bakr regretted on his deathbed.[101][102] Likely a political move to weaken the Banu Hashim,[103][104][105][106] Abu Bakr had earlier confiscated from Fatima the rich lands of Fadak, which she considered her inheritance (or a gift) from her father.[107][108] The confiscation of Fadak is often justified in Sunni sources with a hadith about prophetic inheritance, the authenticity of which has been doubted partly because it contradicts Quranic injunctions.[107][109]
Caliphate of Abu Bakr (r. 632–634)
In the absence of popular support, Ali eventually accepted the temporal rule of Abu Bakr, probably for the sake of Muslim unity.
Caliphate of Umar (r. 634–644)
Before his death in 634, Abu Bakr designated Umar as his successor.
Election of Uthman (644)
Before his death in 644,[142] Umar tasked a small committee with choosing the next caliph among themselves.[143] Ali and Uthman were the strongest candidates in this committee,[144][145] whose members were all early companions of Muhammad from the Quraysh tribe.[143] Another member, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, was given the deciding vote either by the committee or by Umar.[146][147][148] After deliberations, Ibn Awf appointed his brother-in-law Uthman as the next caliph,[149][150] when the latter promised to follow the precedent of the first two caliphs.[149] By contrast, Ali rejected this condition,[149][148] or gave an evasive answer.[151] The Ansar were not represented in the committee,[152][147] which was evidently biased toward Uthman.[153][154][148] Both of these factors worked against Ali,[147][155][156] who could have not been simply excluded from the proceedings.[157]
Caliphate of Uthman (r. 644–656)
Uthman was widely accused of nepotism,
Assassination of Uthman (656)
As their grievances mounted, provincial dissidents poured into Medina in 656.[15] The Egyptian opposition sought the advice of Ali, who urged them to negotiate with Uthman.[176][177] Ali similarly asked the Iraqi opposition to refrain from violence, which they heeded.[178] He also repeatedly mediated between Uthman and the dissidents,[15][179][180] to address their economical and political grievances.[181][15] In particular, Ali negotiated and guaranteed the agreement that ended the first siege.[182][15] He then convinced Uthman to publicly repent,[183] but the caliph soon retracted his statement, possibly pressed by his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam.[184] Egyptian rebels laid siege to Uthman's residence for a second time when they intercepted an official letter ordering their punishment. They demanded the caliph's abdication but he refused and maintained his innocence about the letter,[185] for which Marwan is often blamed in the early sources.[186][187] Ali also sided with Uthman,[185] but the caliph apparently accused him about the letter.[188] This is probably when Ali refused to further intercede for Uthman,[185][175] who was assassinated soon afterward by Egyptian rebels.[186][189][190] Ali played no role in the deadly attack,[7][191] and his son Hasan was injured while guarding Uthman's besieged residence at the request of Ali.[3][192][167] He also convinced the rebels to deliver water to Uthman's house during the siege.[185][165]
Caliphate
Election (656)
When Uthman was assassinated in 656 by Egyptian rebels,[186] the potential candidates for caliphate were Ali and Talha. The Umayyads had fled Medina, leaving the provincial rebels and the Ansar in control of the city. Among the Egyptians, Talha enjoyed some support, but the Iraqis and most of the Ansar supported Ali.[110] The majority of the Muhajirun,[15][173][193] and key tribal figures also favored Ali at this time.[194] The caliphate was offered by these groups to Ali, who, after some hesitation,[173][15][1] publicly took the oath of office.[195][196][197] Malik al-Ashtar might have been the first to pledge his allegiance to Ali.[197] Talha and Zubayr, who both aspired to the caliphate,[198][199] also gave their pledges to Ali, most likely willingly,[1][200][192] but later broke their oaths.[201][1][202] Ali probably did not force anyone to pledge,[195] and there is little evidence of any violence, even though many broke with Ali later, claiming that they had pledged under duress.[203] At the same time, the supporters, who were in majority in Medina, might have intimidated others.[204]
Legitimacy
Ali thus filled the power vacuum created by the regicide.[205][179][206] His election, irregular and without a council,[110] faced little public opposition in Medina,[191][207][205] but the rebels' support for him left him exposed to accusations of complicity in Uthman's assassination.[7] Even though underprivileged groups readily rallied around Ali,[208][198] he had limited support among the powerful Quraysh, some of whom aspired to caliphate.[209][110] Within the Quraysh, two camps opposed Ali: the Umayyads, who believed that the caliphate was their right after Uthman, and those who wished to restore the caliphate of Quraysh on the same principles laid by Abu Bakr and Umar. This second group was likely the majority within the Quraysh.[201][191] Ali was indeed vocal about the divine prerogative of Muhammad's kin to leadership,[210][211] which would have jeopardized the political ambitions of the rest of the Quraysh.[212]
Administrative policies
Justice
The caliphate of Ali was characterized by his strict justice.[214][215][15] He implemented radical policies to restore his vision of prophetic governance,[216][217][218] and dismissed nearly all of Uthman's governors,[209] whom he considered corrupt.[219] Ali also distributed the treasury funds equally among Muslims, following the practice of Muhammad,[220] and is said to have shown zero tolerance for corruption.[221][222] Some of those affected by Ali's egalitarian policies soon revolted against him under the pretext of revenge for Uthman.[223] Among them was Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria.[168] Ali has therefore been criticized by some for political naivety and excessive rigorism,[7][224] and praised by others for righteousness and lack of political expediency.[223][218] His supporters identify similar decisions of Muhammad,[225][226] and argue that Islam never allows for compromising on a just cause, citing verse 68:9 of the Quran,[226] "They wish that thou might compromise and that they might compromise."[227][228] Some instead suggest that Ali's decisions were actually justified on a practical level.[196][229][15] For instance, the removal of unpopular governors was perhaps the only option available to Ali because injustice was the main grievance of the rebels.[196]
Religious authority
As evident from his public speeches,[230] Ali viewed himself not only as the temporal leader of the Muslim community but also as its exclusive religious authority.[231][232] He thus laid claim to the religious authority to interpret the Quran and Sunna.[233][234] Some supporters of Ali indeed held him as their divinely-guided leader who deserved the same type of loyalty that Muhammad did.[235] They felt an absolute and all-encompassing bond of spiritual loyalty (walaya) to Ali that transcended politics.[236] For instance, many of them publicly offered Ali their unconditional support circa 658.[237][238] They justified their absolute loyalty to Ali on the basis of his merits, precedent in Islam,[239] his kinship with Muhammad,[240] and also the announcement by the latter at the Ghadir Khumm.[236] Many of these supporters also viewed Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad after his death,[241] as evidenced in the poetry from that period, for instance.[242][243]
Fiscal policies
Ali opposed centralized control over provincial revenues.[194] He equally distributed excess taxes and booty among Muslims,[194][7] following the precedent of Muhammad and Abu Bakr.[244][220] In comparison, Umar had distributed the state revenues according to perceived Islamic merit,[245][246] and Uthman was widely accused of nepotism and corruption.[158][247][159] The strictly egalitarian policies of Ali earned him the support of underprivileged groups, including the Ansar, the qurra, and the late immigrants to Iraq.[208] By contrast, Talha and Zubayr were both Qurayshite companions of Muhammad who had amassed immense wealth under Uthman.[248] They both revolted against Ali when he refused to grant them favors.[249][220] Some other figures among the Quraysh similarly turned against Ali,[250][251] who even withheld public funds from his relatives,[252][253] whereas his archenemy Mu'awiya readily offered bribes.[251][254] Ali instructed his officials to collect tax payments on a voluntary basis and without harassment, and to prioritize the poor when distributing public funds.[255] A letter attributed to Ali directs his governor to pay more attention to land development than taxation.[256][257]
Rules of war
During the Muslim civil war, Ali forbade his soldiers from looting,[258][259] and instead paid them from tax revenues.[258] He also pardoned his enemies in victory.[259][260] Both of these practices were later enshrined in Islamic law.[259] Ali also advised his commander al-Ashtar not to reject any calls to peace, not to violate any agreements,[261] and ordered him not to commence hostilities.[262] Ali similarly barred his troops from disturbing civilians,[263] killing the wounded and those who fled, mutilating the dead, entering homes without permission, looting, and harming women.[264] He prevented the enslavement of women in victory, even though some protested.[7] Before the Battle of Siffin with Mu'awiya, Ali did not retaliate and allowed his enemies to access drinking water when he gained the upper hand.[265][266]
Battle of the Camel
Aisha publicly campaigned against Ali immediately after his accession.
Account of the battle
The battle took place in December 656.[279][280] The rebels commenced hostilities,[192][281] and Aisha was present on the battlefield, riding in an armored palanquin atop a red camel, after which the battle is named.[282][283] Talha was soon killed by another rebel, Marwan, the secretary of Uthman.[284][285] Zubayr, an experienced fighter, deserted shortly after the battle had begun,[281][192] but was pursued and killed.[281][192] His desertion suggests he had serious moral misgivings about their cause.[286][192] Ali won the day,[192][287][196] and Aisha was respectfully escorted back to Hejaz.[288][192][279] Ali then announced a public pardon,[289] setting free all war prisoners, even Marwan,[290][288] and prohibiting the enslavement of their women. Their seized properties were also returned.[291] Ali then stationed himself in Kufa,[292] which thus became his de facto capital.[279][272]
Battle of Siffin
Mu'awiya, the incumbent governor of Syria, was deemed corrupt and unfit by Ali,[219] who wrote to and removed him from his post.[293][294][295] In turn, Mu'awiya, as Uthman's cousin, launched a propaganda campaign across Syria, blaming Ali for the regicide and calling for revenge.[296][297][298] Mu'awiya also joined forces with Amr ibn al-As,[299] a military strategist,[300] who pledged to back the Umayyads against Ali in return for life-long governorship of Egypt.[301] Yet Mu'awiya also secretly offered to recognize the caliphate of Ali in return for Syria and Egypt,[302] which Ali rejected.[303] Mu'awiya then formally declared war, charging Ali with regicide, demanding his removal, and a Syrian council thereafter to elect the next caliph.[304] Contemporary authors tend to view Mu'awiya's call for revenge as a pretext for power grab.[305][232][306][307][308][309]
Account of the battle
In the summer of 657, the armies of Ali and Mu'awiya camped at Siffin, west of the Euphrates River,[310] numbering perhaps at 100,000 and 130,000, respectively.[311] Many of Muhammad's companions were present in Ali's army, whereas Mu'awiya could only boast a handful.[215][311] The two sides negotiated for a while, to no avail,[179][312][15][313][314] after which the main battle took place from Wednesday, 26 July 657,[309][305] until Friday or Saturday morning.[315][312] Ali probably refrained from initiating hostilities,[196] and later fought alongside his men on the frontline, whereas Mu'awiya led from his pavilion,[316][317] and rejected a proposal to settle the matters in a personal duel with Ali.[318][309][319] Among those killed fighting for Ali was Ammar.[317] In canonical Sunni sources, a prophetic hadith predicts Ammar's death at the hands of al-fi'a al-baghiya (lit. 'rebellious aggressive group') who call to hellfire.[320][311][312]
Call to arbitration
Fighting stopped when some Syrians raised pages of the Quran on their lances, shouting, "Let the Book of God be the judge between us."[321][312] Since Mu'awiya had for long insisted on battle, this call for arbitration suggests that he now feared defeat.[321][179][322] By contrast, Ali exhorted his men to fight, telling them that raising Qurans was for deception, but to no avail.[321][309] Through their representatives, the qurra and the ridda tribesmen of Kufa,[323][313][312] the largest bloc in Ali's army,[15][313] both threatened Ali with mutiny if he did not answer the Syrians' call.[321][15][324][325] Facing strong peace sentiments in his army, Ali accepted the arbitration proposal,[326] most likely against his own judgment.[312][326]
Arbitration agreement
Mu'awiya now proposed that representatives from both sides should find a Quranic resolution.[15][327] Mu'awiya was represented by his ally Amr,[328] whereas, despite Ali's opposition, the majority in his camp pressed for the neutral Abu Musa, the erstwhile governor of Kufa.[329][312][330] The arbitration agreement was written and signed on 2 August 657,[331] stipulating that the two representatives should meet on neutral territory,[332] adhere to the Quran and Sunna, and restore peace.[331][305] Both armies left the battlefield after the agreement.[333] The arbitration agreement thus divided Ali's camp, as many did not support his negotiations with Mu'awiya, whose claims they considered fraudulent. By contrast, the agreement strengthened Mu'awiya's position, who was now an equal contender for the caliphate.[334]
Formation of the Kharijites
Some of Ali's men left him in protest to the arbitration agreement.
Arbitration proceedings
The two arbitrators met together in Dumat al-Jandal,[344] perhaps in February 658.[15] There they reached the verdict that Uthman had been killed wrongfully and that Mu'awiya had the right to seek revenge.[345][346][15] They could not agree on anything else.[347] Rather than a judicial ruling, this was a political concession by Abu Musa, who probably hoped that Amr would later reciprocate this gesture.[347] Ali denounced the conduct of the two arbitrators as contrary to the Quran and began organizing a second Syria campaign.[348][7] Solely an initiative of Mu'awiya,[345] there was also a second meeting in Udhruh.[345][196] The negotiations there also failed,[348] as the two arbitrators could not agree on the next caliph: Amr supported Mu'awiya,[15] while Abu Musa nominated his son-in-law Abd Allah ibn Umar,[15][134] who stood down.[15][349] At its closure, Abu Musa publicly deposed both Mu'awiya and Ali and called for a council to appoint his successor per earlier agreements with Amr. When Amr took the stage, however, he deposed Ali and appointed Mu'awiya as his successor.[134][350][15] The Kufan delegation reacted furiously to Abu Musa's concessions,[348] and the common view is that the arbitration failed,[345][329] or was inconclusive.[351][335][352] It nevertheless strengthened the Syrians' support for Mu'awiya and weakened the position of Ali.[345][353][215][15][354]
Battle of Nahrawan
After the arbitration, Mu'awiya received the Syrians' pledge as caliph.[355] Ali then organized a new, much smaller,[15] Syria campaign.[337][134][356] But he postponed the expedition,[357] and instead marched to Nahrawan with his army,[357] when he learned that the Kharijites were interrogating and executing civilians.[358][359] They killed many, apparently not even sparing women.[338] Ali convinced many of the Kharijites to separate from their army, leaving about 1,500–1,800, or 2,800, out of about 4,000 fighters.[360][361] The rest of the Kharijites then attacked and were crushed by Ali's army of about 14,000 men.[362][361] The battle took place either on 17 July 658,[363][337] or in 657.[364][363] Ali has been criticized by some for killing his erstwhile allies,[365][366][367] many of whom were outwardly pious Muslims. For others, subduing the Kharijites was necessary, for they were violent and radicalized rebels who posed a danger to Ali's base in Kufa.[368][369][329][370]
Final years
Following the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali could not muster enough support for a second Syria campaign.[371][367] Perhaps his soldiers were demoralized, [366] or perhaps they were recalled by their tribal leaders,[372][373] many of whom had been bribed and swayed by Mu'awiya.[374][373][366] By contrast, Ali did not grant any financial favors to tribal chiefs as a matter of principle.[250][251] At any rate, the secession of so many of the qurra and the coolness of the tribal leaders weakened Ali.[372][179][375] Ali consequently lost Egypt to Mu'awiya in 658.[350][376] Mu'awiya also began dispatching military detachments,[350] which targeted civilians along the Euphrates river, near Kufa, and most successfully, in the Hejaz and Yemen.[377] Ali could not mount a timely response to these assaults.[7] He eventually found sufficient support for a second Syria offensive, set to commence in late winter 661. His success was in part due to the public outrage over Syrian raids.[378] However, plans for a second campaign were abandoned after the assassination of Ali.[379]
Assassination and burial
Ali was assassinated during the
Succession
When Ali died, his son Hasan was acknowledged as the next caliph in Kufa.
Descendants of Ali
The first marriage of Ali was to Fatima, who bore him three sons, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhsin.[391] Muhsin either died in infancy,[17] or Fatima miscarried him when she was injured in a raid on her house during the succession crisis.[96] The descendants of Hasan and Husayn are known as the Hasanids and the Husaynids, respectively.[393] As the progeny of Muhammad, they are honored in Muslim communities by nobility titles such as sharif and sayyid.[3] Ali and Fatima also had two daughters, Zaynab and Umm Kulthum.[394] After Fatima's death in 632, Ali remarried multiple times and had more children, including Muhammad al-Awsat and Abbas ibn Ali.[394] In his life, Ali fathered seventeen daughters, and eleven, fourteen, or eighteen sons,[391] among whom, Hasan, Husayn, and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya played a historical role.[7] Descendants of Ali are known as the Alids.[393]
Under the Umayyads (661–750)
Mu'awiya succeeded Ali in 661 and founded the dynastic Umayyad Caliphate,
Under the Abbasids (750–1258)
Alids were also persecuted under the
Works
Most of the works attributed to Ali were first delivered as speeches and later committed to writing by others. There are also supplications, such as
Nahj al-balagha
Nahj al-balagha (lit. 'the path of eloquence') is an eleventh-century collection of sermons, letters, and sayings, all attributed to Ali, compiled by
Ghurar al-hikam
Mushaf of Ali
Mushaf of Ali is a recension of the Quran compiled by Ali, who was one of its first scribes.[420] By some Shia accounts, this codex (mushaf) of Ali was rejected for official use during the succession crisis.[421] Some early Shia traditions also suggest differences with the standard Uthmanid codex,[422] although now the prevalent Shia view is that Ali's recension matches the Uthmanid codex, save for the order of its content.[423] Ali's codex is said to be in the possession of Muhammad al-Mahdi, who would reveal the codex (and its authoritative commentary by Ali) when he reappears.[424][409]
Kitab Ali
Other works
The Du'a' Kumayl is a popular Shia supplication attributed to Ali, transmitted by his companion, Kumayl ibn Ziyad.[1] Also attributed to Ali is Kitab al-Diyat on Islamic law, fully quoted in the Shia hadith collection Man la yahduruhu al-faqih.[428] The judicial decisions and executive orders of Ali during his caliphate have also been recorded.[429] Other extant works attributed to Ali are collected in Kitab al-Kafi and other Shia sources.[1]
Contributions to Islamic sciences
The standard recitation of the Quran has been traced back to Ali,[430][431][215] and his written legacy is dotted with Quranic commentaries.[427] Ibn Abbas, a leading early exegete, credited Ali with his interpretations of the Quran.[432] Ali also related several hundred prophetic hadiths.[427] He is further credited with the first systematic evaluations of hadiths, and is often considered a founding figure for hadith sciences.[427] Ali is also regarded by some as the founder of Islamic theology, and his sayings contain the first rational proofs of the unity of God (tawhid) in Islam.[433][34] In later Islamic philosophy, Ali's sayings and sermons were mined for metaphysical knowledge.[3] In particular, Nahj al-balagha is a vital source for Shia philosophical doctrines, after the Quran and Sunna.[434] As a Shia imam, statements and practices attributed to Ali are widely studied in Shia Islam, where they are viewed as the continuation of prophetic teachings.[427]
Names and titles
Ali is known by many honorifics in the Islamic tradition, some of which are especially used by Shias.[3] His main kunya (teknonym) was ʾAbū al-Ḥasan ("father of al-Hasan").[435][3] His titles include al-Murtaḍā (lit. 'one with whom [God] is pleased' or 'one who is chosen and contented'),[435][3] Asad Allāh (lit. 'lion of God'),[436] Ḥaydar (lit. 'lion', the name initially her mother gave him),[435] Amīr al-Muʾminīn (lit. 'commander of the faithful' or 'prince of the faithful'), and Imām al-Muttaqin (lit. 'leader of the God-fearing').[435][3] In particular, Twelvers consider the title of Amir al-Mu'minin to be unique to Ali.[437] He is also referred to as Abū Turāb (lit. 'father of dust'),[3] which might have initially been a pejorative by his enemies.[7]
Character
Often praised for his piety and courage,[215][438][7] Ali fought to uphold his beliefs,[7][439] but was also magnanimous in victory,[440][215] even risking the ire of some supporters to prevent the enslavement of women.[7] He also showed his grief, wept for the dead, and reportedly prayed over his enemies.[7] Yet Ali has also been criticized for his idealism and political inflexibility,[7][224] for his egalitarian policies and strict justice antagonized many.[441][223] Or perhaps these qualities were also present in Muhammad,[226][225] whom the Quran addresses as, "They wish that thou [Muhammad] might compromise and that they might compromise."[442] At any rate, these qualities of Ali, rooted in his religious beliefs, contributed to his image today for his followers as a paragon of Islamic virtues,[7][443][441] particularly justice.[2] Ali is also viewed as the model par excellence for Islamic chivalry (futuwwa).[444][445][446]
Historical accounts about Ali are often tendentious.[7] For instance, in person, Ali is described in some Sunni sources as bald, heavy-built, short-legged, with broad shoulders, hairy body, long white beard, and affected by eye inflammation.[7] Shia accounts about the appearance of Ali are markedly different. Those perhaps better match his reputation as a capable warrior.[447] Likewise, in manner, Ali is presented in some Sunni sources as rough, brusque, and unsociable.[7] By contrast, Shia sources describe him as generous, gentle, and cheerful,[445][2] to the point that the Syrian war propaganda accused him of frivolity.[221] Shia and Sufi sources are also replete with reports about his acts of kindness, especially to the poor.[448] The necessary qualities in a commander, described in a letter attributed to Ali, may have well been a portrait of himself: slow to anger, happy to pardon, kind to the weak, and severe with the strong.[449] His companion, Sa'sa'a ibn Suhan, described him similarly, "He [Ali] was amongst us as one of us, of gentle disposition, intense humility, leading with a light touch, even though we were in awe of him with the kind of awe that a bound prisoner has before one who holds a sword over his head."[2][449]
Assessment and legacy
Ali | |
---|---|
Druze Faith Yarsanism | |
Major shrine | Imam Ali Shrine, Najaf |
In Islam
Ali's place is said to be second only to Muhammad in Muslim culture.[15] Ali is revered for his courage, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, magnanimity, and equal treatment of all Muslims.[440] For his admirers, he has thus become the archetype of uncorrupted Islam and pre-Islamic chivalry.[443]
In the Quran
Ali regularly represented Muhammad in missions which are commonly linked to Quranic injunctions.
In hadith literature
Muhammad frequently praise the qualities of Ali. The most controversial such statement, "He whose mawla I am, Ali is his mawla," was delivered at the Ghadir Khumm. This gave Ali the same spiritual authority (walaya) as Muhammad, according to the Shia.[463] Elsewhere, the hadith of the position likens Muhammad and Ali to Moses and Aaron,[35] and thus supports the usurped right of Ali to succeed Muhammad in Shia Islam.[464] Other examples in standard Shia and Sunni collections of hadith include, "There is no youth braver than Ali," "No-one but a believer loves Ali, and no-one but a hypocrite (munafiq) hates Ali," "I am from Ali, and Ali is from me, and he is the wali (lit. 'patron' or 'guardian') of every believer after me," "The truth revolves around him [Ali] wherever he goes," "I am the city of knowledge and Ali is its gate (bab)," "Ali is with the Quran and the Quran is with Ali. They will not separate until they return to me at the [paradisal] pool."[465][34]
In Sufism
Ali is the common source of mystical and spiritual currents within both Sunni and Shia sects of Islam.[466][467] In particular, Ali is the spiritual head of some Sufi movements,[1] for Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad his esoteric knowledge and saintly authority,[3] which guide believers on their journey toward God.[1] Nearly all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali, an exception being the Naqshbandis, who reach Muhammad through Abu Bakr.[3]
In Sunni Islam
In Sunni Islam, Ali is venerated as a close companion of Muhammad,[468] a foremost authority on the Quran and Islamic law,[432][469] and the fountainhead of wisdom in Sunni spirituality.[466] When the prophet died in 632, Ali had his claims to leadership, perhaps in reference to the Ghadir Khumm,[111][43] but he eventually accepted the temporal rule of the first three caliphs in the interest of Muslim unity.[470] Ali is portrayed in Sunni sources as a trusted advisor of the first three caliphs,[3][15] while their conflicts with Ali are minimized,[124][125] in line with the Sunni tendency to show accord among companions.[125][471][472] As the fourth and final Rashidun caliph, Ali holds a particularly high status in Sunni Islam, although this doctrinal reverence for Ali is a recent development for which the prominent Sunni traditionist Ibn Hanbal (d. 855) is likely to be credited.[1] Sunni hierarchy of companions places Ali below his three predecessors and above those who fought against him.[1][473][468] This ordering has required Sunni reinterpretation of those prophetic sayings that explicitly elevate Ali above all companions.[1]
In Shia Islam
Ali takes center stage in Shia Islam:[3] The Arabic word shi'a itself is short for 'shi'a of Ali' (lit. 'followers of Ali'),[474] his name is incorporated into the daily call to prayer (adhan),[3] and he is regarded as the foremost companion of Muhammad.[475][476] The defining doctrine of Shia Islam is that Ali was the rightful successor of Muhammad through divinely-ordained designation,[15][477] which is primarily a reference to the Ghadir Khumm.[478] Ali is thought to have inherited the political and religious authority of Muhammad, even before his ascension to the caliphate in 656.[479][480] In particular, Ali's predecessors are regarded as illegitimate rulers and usurpers of his rights.[15] The all-encompassing bond of loyalty between Shia Muslims and their imams (and Muhammad in his capacity as imam) is known as walaya.[236] Ali is also thought to be endowed with the privilege of intercession on the Judgment Day.[1] Early on, some Shias even attributed divinity to Ali,[15][475] but such extreme views were gradually rooted out of Shi'ism.[481]
In Shia belief, Ali also inherited the esoteric knowledge of Muhammad,
In Alawism
The Alawites venerate Ali, the first of the Twelve Imams, as the physical manifestation of God.[490][491] Even, the Alawite testimony of faith (shahada) translates as "there is no God but Ali".[492] The Alawite trinity envisions God as being composed of three distinct manifestations, Ma'na (meaning), Ism (Name) and Bab (Door); which together constitute an "indivisible trinity". Ma'na symbolises the "source and meaning of all things" in Alawite mythology. According to Alawite doctrines, Ma'na generated the Ism, which in turn built the Bab. These beliefs are closely tied to the Alawite doctrine of reincarnations of the trinity.[493][494] The final trinity of reincarnation in the Alawite trinity consists of Ali (Ma'na), Muhammad (Ism) and Salman the Persian (Bab). Alewites depict them as the sky, sun and moon respectively. Alawites deify Ali as the "last and supreme manifestation of God" who built the universe, attribute to him divine superiority, and believe that Ali created Muhammad and gave him the mission to spread Qur'anic teachings on earth.[495][496][493][497]
In other religions
In the Druze faith, Ali is considered a "minor prophet," like Plato and Socrates.[498] Even though the faith originally developed out of the Isma'ili branch of Shia Islam, the Druze are not Muslims,[499][500] and do not accept the five pillars of Islam.[500] In Yarsanism, a religion founded by the Kurdish mystic Sultan Sahak, Ali is thought to be an incarnation of God,[501] and superior to Muhammad,[501] but their image as a Ghulat (lit. 'exaggerators' or 'extremists') subsect of Shia Islam is incorrect.[501]
Historiography
Much has been written about Ali in Islamic literature, second only to Muhammad.
Footnotes
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- ^ Tabatabai 1975, p. 35.
- ^ Miskinzoda 2015, p. 76.
- ^ Momen 1985, pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 134.
- ^ Louër 2020, p. 30.
- ^ a b Rauf 2007, p. 201.
- ^ Rauf 2007, p. 202.
- ^ Keaney 2021, p. 136.
- ^ Lucas 2004, p. 255-84.
- ^ Soufi 1997, p. 120.
- ^ Crone 2005, p. 135.
- ^ Shomali 2003, p. 14.
- ^ a b Steigerwald 2004, p. 36.
- ^ Poonawala 2014, p. 305.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 147.
- ^ a b Daftary 2015, p. 172.
- ^ a b Gleave 2004.
- ^ Mavani 2013, pp. 52, 53.
- ^ Momen 1985, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Steigerwald 2004, p. 37.
- ^ Mavani 2013, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Tabatabai 1975, pp. 186–189.
- ^ Haider 2014, p. 42.
- ^ Mavani 2013, p. 68.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 155.
- ^ Momen 1985, p. 174.
- ^ Shah-Kazemi 2015a, p. 38.
- ^ Nisan 2002, p. 116.
- ^ Cosman & Jones 2009, p. 407.
- ^ Atwan 2015, p. 58.
- ^ a b Ismail 2016, p. 67.
- ^ Moosa 1987, p. 311–312.
- ^ Moosa 1987, p. 312.
- ^ Esposito & Moosa 1995, p. 64.
- ^ Nisan 2002, p. 115, 117.
- ^ "Druze in Syria". Harvard Divinity School. Harvard University Press. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023.
- ^ Jacobs 2014, p. 193.
- ^ a b McLaurin 1979, p. 114.
- ^ a b c Algar 1994, p. 513.
- ^ Clarke 2005, p. 59.
- ^ Robinson 2003, pp. 27, 28, 34.
- ^ Madelung 1997, pp. xi, 19, 20.
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- Modarressi, H. (1993). "Early Debates on the Integrity of the Qur'ān: A Brief Survey". Studia Islamica. 77 (77): 5–39. JSTOR 1595789.
- Petersen, E.L. (1958). "'Alī and Mu'āwiah: The Rise of the Umayyad Caliphate 656–661". Acta Orientalia. 23: 157–196. doi:10.5617/ao.5297.
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Further reading
- Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and His Succession. University of California. ISBN 978-969-8016-22-7.
- Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as Contained in the Sheeah Traditions. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-5536-7.