Racial discrimination in jury selection
The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with United States of America, Australia, Canada and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (May 2023) |
Racial discrimination in jury selection is specifically prohibited by law in many jurisdictions throughout the world. In the United States, it has been defined through a series of judicial decisions.[1] However, juries composed solely of one racial group are legal in the United States and other countries. While the racial composition of juries is not dictated by law, racial discrimination in the selection of jurors (regardless of the jury's ultimate composition) is specifically prohibited. Depending on context, the phrases "all-white jury" or "all-black jury" can raise the expectation that deliberations may be unfair.[2]
Australia
In
Courts have examined objections raised when the selection of juries did not represent either the social class or ethnic background of the accused. Current law does not extend a legal right to that degree of representation on a jury, provided that selection of the jury pool has complied with the Juries Act 1967 (VIC).[3]
There is a history of Aboriginal people being underrepresented in jury pools, or completely absent in juries selected to hear cases involving Aboriginal defendants. Some reasons offered are that Aboriginal people may be excluded from juries due to not being enrolled to vote (which is how juries are typically selected), or that they failed to respond to a summons, or because of challenges by the prosecution and defense attorneys, or because their English may be poor. Australia has mandatory voter enrolment and mandatory voting, but this is sometimes unenforced especially in remote areas or among homeless people.[3]
However, there is also evidence that Aboriginal people are disadvantaged by the criminal justice system itself and its processes (such as jury selection). The ALRC found that Aboriginal Australians were 7 times more likely to be charged with a crime and brought before the courts, but 12.5 times more likely to receive a sentence of imprisonment.[4]
- In 1983, 16-year-old Aboriginal boy Roeburne, Western Australia. The officers were tried for manslaughter, but acquitted by an all-white jury after pleading self-defence.[5]
- In 2004, Aboriginal man Cameron Doomadgee was arrested and died in a police cell on Palm Island, Queensland from injuries. In 2007, the arresting police officer Chris Hurley was charged with assault and manslaughter, but was later acquitted by an all-white jury.[6]
- In 2019 in Walpiri man Kumanjayi Walker 3 times, killing him. This occurred shortly after Walker stabbed Rolfe with scissors. 3 days later, Rolfe was charged with murder. In 2022, Rolfe was acquitted unanimously.[7] Juror candidates were drawn randomly. Rolfe's defence team used the majority of their 12 challenges to remove people of colour and those of Asian descent. In the end, the jury selected were all white with the exception of one young Asian woman, even though Indigenous people account for 30% of the Northern Territory population.[8][9]
Canada
Canada has also struggled with the issue of racial discrimination in jury selection, especially for First Nations people. In 2001, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) stopped producing band lists of First Nations people living on reserve for provincial jury rolls because of privacy concerns. The exclusion of this information from provincial jury rolls meant First Nations people living on reserves were not properly represented on juries.[10]
The removal of First Nations people living on reserves from provincial jury rolls directly collided with the Supreme Court of Canada's 1991 decision of R. V. Sherrat [1991] 1 SCR 509 wherein the Court found that the "representativeness right" is an essential component of the right to trial by jury. In particular, the Court pronounced that:
"The perceived importance of the jury and the Charter right to jury trial is meaningless without some guarantee that it will perform its duties impartially and represent, as far as is possible and appropriate in the circumstances, the larger community. Indeed, without the two characteristics of impartiality and representativeness, a jury would be unable to perform properly many of the functions that make its existence desirable in the first place"[11]
The Supreme Court of Canada in 2015 evolved the issue of a "representative right" in jury trials in the case of R. V. Kokopenance, [2015] SCR 28 wherein the Court held that "an accused is not entitled to a jury that includes members of their own race or religion; rather, they are only entitled to a fair and honest process of random jury selection"[11]
The issue of "representative right" is not dead or a decided issue. In 2018 the Federal Government introduced Bill C-75 in response to the Colten Boushie case. Bill C-75 eliminated peremptory challenges of jurors in criminal cases, thereby preventing the exclusion of jurors by both Crown and defense counsels. Bill C-75 became law on June 21, 2019, which coincidentally happens to be National Indigenous Peoples Day in Canada.[12]
United States
In the United States, racial discrimination in jury selection has a long history, even though a series of judicial decisions has determined that such discrimination violates the rights of defendants.[1] While the racial composition of juries is not dictated by law, racial discrimination in the selection of jurors (regardless of the jury's ultimate composition) is specifically prohibited. However, the phrases "all-white jury" or "all-black jury" can raise a host of expectations – among them, the expectation that deliberations may be less than fair.[2]
Current precedent and legal challenges
Under the standard set forth by the
History
Following the
Sec 4. That no citizen possessing all other qualification which are or may be prescribed by law shall be disqualified for service as grand or petit juror in any court of the United States, or of any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude; and any officer or other person charged with any duty in the selection or summoning of jurors who shall exclude or fail to summon any citizen for the cause aforesaid shall, on conviction thereof, be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and be fined not more than five thousand dollars.[14]
The
In 1883, the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was overturned entirely by the Supreme Court, in an 8–1 decision. In 1896, the landmark
In the 1931 case of the
Despite Norris, the practice of excluding black people from juries did not disappear. In 1985, the Supreme Court in
Batson did not eliminate the exclusion of black people from juries. Batson applied only in criminal trials, only to prosecutors, and only in situations where the challenged juror and the defendant were of the same race.
On December 15, 2016, the Kentucky Supreme Court, citing Batson, ruled that judges do not have authority to dismiss randomly selected jury panels for lack of racial diversity. The ruling arose from a decision by Jefferson County Circuit Court Judge Olu Stevens to dismiss a nearly all-white jury panel in a 2014 case involving a black defendant. When prosecutors in Louisville asked the Kentucky Supreme Court to review whether Judge Stevens abused his discretion in dismissing the all-white panel, Judge Stevens commented on Facebook that the prosecutor's request amounted to an attempt "to protect the right to impanel all-white juries." Judge Stevens also suggested "something much more sinister" and wrote that the prosecutor would "live in infamy." For his remarks, Judge Stevens received a 90-day suspension without pay, acknowledged he violated judicial canons and apologized for any statements that implied the prosecutor was racist.[21][22][23]
References
- ^ a b Equal Justice Initiative (June 2010). "Illegal Racial Discrimination in Jury Selection: A Continuing Legacy". Equal Justice Initiative. p. 10. Archived from the original on June 5, 2010. Retrieved June 11, 2010.
- ^ a b Dobbs, David (July 17, 2007). "The all-white jury v the diverse: Evidence, for a change". Scientific American.
In the long, messy experiment that is the trial by jury, one of the most volatile and closely attended variables in the United States is a jury's racial make-up.
- ^ a b c "Aborigines and Juries". Australian Law Reform Commission. August 18, 2010.
- ^ "Finding a Path Towards Justice". Australian Law Reform Commission. July 7, 2020. Retrieved April 21, 2021.
- on Sage Journals paywall site
- ^ Marks, Russell (August 19, 2021). "A question of good faith: The trial of Zachary Rolfe". The Monthly. Retrieved March 11, 2022.
- NITV. Retrieved March 29, 2022.
- ^ Krien, Anna (May 2, 2022). "A Shooting in Yuendumu". The Monthly (188): 18–42. Retrieved May 10, 2022.
- ^ "Region summary: Northern Territory". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2016. Retrieved March 29, 2022.
- ^ McKay-Panos, Linda. "The Right of First Nations Peoples to a Representative Jury". LawNow Magazine. Retrieved March 2, 2020.
- ^ a b Gallardo-Ganaban, Christopher (January 3, 2019). "The Lack of Representation of Indigenous People in Canadian Juries". LawNow Magazine. Retrieved March 2, 2020.
- ^ "Bill C-75 | Courthouse Libraries BC". www.courthouselibrary.ca. Retrieved March 2, 2020.
- ^ PBS. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
- ^ "Civil Rights Act of 1875, 18 Stat. Part III, p. 335 (Act of Mar. 1, 1875)". The University of Denver Sturm College of Law. Archived from the original on May 20, 2007. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
- ISBN 978-0-19-517661-2.
- PBS. Archived from the originalon April 13, 2001. Retrieved September 25, 2007.
- ^ "Scottsboro Trials Collection, 1931-1937". Cornell University Library. Archived from the original on June 6, 2013. Retrieved May 28, 2013.
- ISBN 978-0-415-95294-1. Retrieved August 31, 2009.
- ISBN 978-0-19-517661-2.
- ^ Dewan, Shaila (June 2, 2010). "Study Finds Blacks Blocked From Southern Juries". The New York Times. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
- ^ Schreiner, Bruce (December 15, 2016). "Kentucky court says judge wrong to dismiss jury over race". Associated Press. Retrieved July 11, 2021.
- ^ "Opinion of the Court by Justice Venters" (PDF). Kentucky Courts. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 11, 2021. Retrieved July 11, 2021.
- ^ Weiss, Debra (December 19, 2016). "Judge didn't have discretion to dismiss jury panel for lack of diversity, top Kentucky court says". ABA Journal. Retrieved July 11, 2021.