Muhammad Iqbal
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Muhammad Iqbal (9 November 1877 – 21 April 1938) was a
Born and raised in
An ardent proponent of the political and spiritual revival of the Muslim world, particularly of the Muslims in the Indian subcontinent, Iqbal's series of lectures he delivered to this effect were published as The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam in 1930. He was elected to the Punjab Legislative Council in 1927 and held several positions in the All-India Muslim League. In his Allahabad Address, delivered at the League's annual assembly in 1930, he formulated a political framework for the Muslim-majority regions spanning northwestern India, spurring the League's pursuit of the two-nation theory.[9]
In August 1947, nine years after Iqbal's death, the partition of India gave way to the establishment of Pakistan, a newly independent Islamic state in which Iqbal was honoured as the national poet. He is also known in Pakistani society as Hakim ul-Ummat (lit. 'The Wise Man of the Ummah') and as Mufakkir-e-Pakistan (lit. 'The Thinker of Pakistan'). The anniversary of his birth (Yom-e Weladat-e Muḥammad Iqbal), 9 November, is observed as a public holiday in Pakistan.
Biography
Background
Iqbal was born on 9 November 1877 in a
Iqbal's father, Sheikh Noor Muhammad (died 1930), was a tailor, not formally educated, but a religious man.
Who would wait for me anxiously in my native place?
Who would display restlessness if my letter fails to arrive?
I will visit thy grave with this complaint:
Who will now think of me in midnight prayers?
All thy life thy love served me with devotion—
When I became fit to serve thee, thou hast departed.[23]
Early education
Iqbal was four years old when he was sent to a mosque to receive instruction in reading the Qur'an.
Marriages
Iqbal married four times under different circumstances.[32]
- His first marriage was in 1895 when he was 18 years old. His bride, Karim Bibi, was the daughter of a Gujrati physician, Khan Bahadur Ata Muhammad Khan. Her sister was the mother of director and music composer Khwaja Khurshid Anwar.[33][34] Their families arranged the marriage, and the couple had two children; a daughter, Miraj Begum (1895–1915), and a son, Aftab Iqbal (1899–1979), who became a barrister.[32][35] Another son is said to have died after birth in 1901.
Iqbal and Karim Bibi separated somewhere between 1910 and 1913. Despite this, he continued to financially support her till his death.[36]
- Iqbal's second marriage took place on 26 August 1910 with the niece of Hakim Noor-ud-Din.[37]
- Iqbal's third marriage was with Mukhtar Begum, and it was held in December 1914, shortly after the death of Iqbal's mother the previous November.[38][30] They had a son, but both the mother and son died shortly after birth in 1924.[32]
- Later, Iqbal married Sardar Begum, and they became the parents of a son, Senior Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan, and a daughter, Muneera Bano (born 1930).[32][36] One of Muneera's sons is the philanthropist-cum-socialite Yousuf Salahuddin.[36]
Higher education in Europe
Iqbal was influenced by the teachings of
In 1907, he had a close friendship with the writer
Academic career
Iqbal began his career as a reader of Arabic after completing his Master of Arts degree in 1899, at
The poetry and philosophy of Rumi strongly influenced Iqbal. Deeply grounded in religion since childhood, Iqbal began concentrating intensely on the study of Islam, the culture and history of Islamic civilization and its political future, while embracing Rumi as "his guide".[23] Iqbal's works focus on reminding his readers of the past glories of Islamic civilization and delivering the message of a pure, spiritual focus on Islam as a source for socio-political liberation and greatness. Iqbal denounced political divisions within and amongst Muslim nations, and frequently alluded to and spoke in terms of the global Muslim community or the Ummah.[48][23]
Iqbal's poetry was translated into many European languages in the early part of the 20th century.
Legal career
Iqbal was not only a prolific writer but also a known advocate. He appeared before the Lahore High Court in both civil and criminal matters. There are more than 100 reported judgments to his name.[51][52][53][54][55][56]
Final years and death
In 1933, after returning from a trip to
Efforts and influences
Political
Iqbal first became interested in national affairs in his youth. He received considerable recognition from the Punjabi elite after his return from England in 1908, and he was closely associated with
In November 1926, with the encouragement of friends and supporters, Iqbal contested the election for a seat in the Punjab Legislative Assembly from the Muslim district of Lahore, and defeated his opponent by a margin of 3,177 votes.[48] He supported the constitutional proposals presented by Jinnah to guarantee Muslim political rights and influence in a coalition with the Congress and worked with Aga Khan and other Muslim leaders to mend the factional divisions and achieve unity in the Muslim League.[63][unreliable source?] While in Lahore he was a friend of Abdul Sattar Ranjoor.[65]
Iqbal, Jinnah, and the concept of "Pakistan"
Ideologically separated from Congress Muslim leaders, Iqbal had also been disillusioned with the politicians of the Muslim League, owing to the factional conflict that plagued the League in the 1920s.[citation needed] Discontent with factional leaders like Shafi and Fazl-ur-Rahman, Iqbal came to believe that only Jinnah was a political leader capable of preserving unity and fulfilling the League's objectives of Muslim political empowerment. Building a strong, personal correspondence with Jinnah, Iqbal was influential in convincing Jinnah to end his self-imposed exile in London, return to India and take charge of the League. Iqbal firmly believed that Jinnah was the only leader capable of drawing Indian Muslims to the League and maintaining party unity before the British and the Congress:
I know you are a busy man, but I do hope you won't mind my writing to you often, as you are the only Muslim in India today to whom the community has the right to look up for safe guidance through the storm which is coming to North-West India and, perhaps, to the whole of India.[66]
While Iqbal espoused the idea of Muslim-majority provinces in 1930, Jinnah would continue to hold talks with the Congress through the decade and only officially embraced the goal of Pakistan in 1940. Some historians postulate that Jinnah always remained hopeful for an agreement with the Congress and never fully desired the partition of India.[67] Iqbal's close correspondence with Jinnah is speculated by some historians as having been responsible for Jinnah's embrace of the idea of Pakistan. Iqbal elucidated to Jinnah his vision of a separate Muslim state in a letter sent on 21 June 1937:
A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why should not the Muslims of North-West India and Bengal be considered as nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are.[48]
Iqbal, serving as president of the Punjab Muslim League, criticized Jinnah's political actions, including a political agreement with Punjabi leader
There is only one way out. Muslims should strengthen Jinnah's hands. They should join the Muslim League. Indian question, as is now being solved, can be countered by our united front against both the Hindus and the English. Without it, our demands are not going to be accepted. People say our demands smack of communalism. This is sheer propaganda. These demands relate to the defense of our national existence. The united front can be formed under the leadership of the Muslim League. And the Muslim League can succeed only on account of Jinnah. Now, none but Jinnah is capable of leading the Muslims.[66]
Madani–Iqbal debate
A famous debate was held between Iqbal and Hussain Ahmed Madani on the question of nationalism in the late 1930s. Madani's position throughout was to insist on the Islamic legitimacy of embracing a culturally plural, secular democracy as the best and the only realistic future for India's Muslims where Iqbal insisted on a religiously defined, homogeneous Muslim society. Madani and Iqbal both appreciated this point and they never advocated the creation of an absolute 'Islamic State'. They differed only in their first step. According to Madani the first step was the freedom of India for which composite nationalism was necessary. According to Iqbal the first step was the creation of a community of Muslims in the Muslim majority land, i.e. a Muslim India within India.[68][69]
Revival of Islamic policy
Iqbal's six English lectures were published in Lahore in 1930, and then by the
Iqbal expressed fears that not only would
Iqbal was elected president of the Muslim League in 1930 at its session in
I would like to see the
Baluchistan amalgamated into a single state. Self-government within the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated Northwest Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of Northwest India.[48][70]
In his speech, Iqbal emphasised that, unlike Christianity, Islam came with "legal concepts" with "civic significance", with its "religious ideals" considered as inseparable from social order: "Therefore, if it means a displacement of the Islamic principle of solidarity, the construction of a policy on national lines, is simply unthinkable to a Muslim."[71] Iqbal thus stressed not only the need for the political unity of Muslim communities but the undesirability of blending the Muslim population into a wider society not based on Islamic principles.[citation needed]
Even as he rejected secularism and nationalism he would not elucidate or specify if his ideal Islamic state would be a
The latter part of Iqbal's life was concentrated on political activity. He travelled across Europe and West Asia to garner political and financial support for the League. He reiterated the ideas of his 1932 address, and, during the third Round Table Conference, he opposed the Congress and proposals for transfer of power without considerable autonomy for Muslim provinces.[citation needed]
He would serve as president of the Punjab Muslim League, and would deliver speeches and publish articles in an attempt to rally Muslims across India as a single political entity. Iqbal consistently criticized feudal classes in Punjab as well as Muslim politicians opposed to the League. Many accounts of Iqbal's frustration toward Congress leadership were also pivotal in providing a vision for the two-nation theory.[73][74]
Patron of Tolu-e-Islam
Iqbal was the first patron of
Literary work
Persian
Iqbal's poetic works are written primarily in
In his
Iqbal's 1924 publication, the
The
Iqbal's 1932 work, the
His love of the Persian language is evident in his works and poetry. He says in one of his poems:[79]
گرچہ ہندی در عذوبت شکر است[80]
garchi Hindi dar uzūbat shakkar ast
طرز گفتار دري شيرين تر است
tarz-i guftar-i Dari shirin tar ast
Translation: Even though in sweetness
Throughout his life, Iqbal would prefer writing in Persian as he believed it allowed him to fully express philosophical concepts, and it gave him a wider audience.[81]
Urdu
Muhammad Iqbal's
Iqbal's works were in Persian for most of his career, but after 1930 his works were mainly in Urdu. His works in this period were often specifically directed at the Muslim masses of India, with an even stronger emphasis on Islam and Muslim spiritual and political reawakening. Published in 1935,
Iqbal's final work was
Iqbal's vision of mystical experience is clear in one of his Urdu ghazals, which was written in London during his student days. Some verses of that ghazal are:[48]
At last, the silent tongue of Hijaz has
announced to the ardent ear the tiding
That the covenant which had been given to the
desert-[dwellers] is going to be renewed
vigorously:
The lion who had emerged from the desert and
had toppled the Roman Empire is
As I am told by the angels, about to get up
again (from his slumbers.)
You the [dwellers] of the West, should know that
the world of God is not a shop (of yours).
Your imagined pure gold is about to lose its
standard value (as fixed by you).
Your civilization will commit suicide with its own daggers.
For a house built on a fragile bark of wood is not longlasting[48]
English
Iqbal wrote two books, The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908) and The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930), and many letters in the English language. He also wrote a book on Economics that is now rare. In these, he revealed his thoughts regarding Persian ideology and Islamic Sufism – in particular, his beliefs that Islamic Sufism activates the searching soul to a superior perception of life. He also discussed philosophy, God and the meaning of prayer, human spirit and Muslim culture, as well as other political, social and religious problems.[48]
Iqbal was invited to Cambridge to participate in a conference in 1931, where he expressed his views, including those on the separation of church and state, to students and other participants:[48]
I would like to offer a few pieces of advice to the young men who are at present studying at Cambridge. ... I advise you to guard against atheism and materialism. The biggest blunder made by Europe was the separation of Church and State. This deprived their culture of moral soul and diverted it to atheistic materialism. I had twenty-five years ago seen through the drawbacks of this civilization and, therefore, had made some prophecies. They had been delivered by my tongue, although I did not quite understand them. This happened in 1907. ... After six or seven years, my prophecies came true, word by word. The European war of 1914 was an outcome of the mistakes mentioned above made by the European nations in the separation of the Church and the State.[48]
Punjabi
Iqbal also wrote some poems in Punjabi, such as "Piyaara Jedi" and "Baba Bakri Wala", which he penned in 1929 on the occasion of his son Javed's birthday. A collection of his Punjabi poetry was put on display at the Iqbal Manzil in Sialkot.[86]
Iqbal was deeply influenced by Punjabi Sufis. Once a comrade recited a poem by Bulleh Shah and he was "so much touched and overwhelmed...that tears rolled down his cheeks."[87]
Modern reputation
"Poet of the East"
Iqbal has been referred to as the "Poet of the East" by academics, institutions and the media.[50][88][89][90][91][92][93]
The Vice-Chancellor of
Yet it should also be born in mind that while dedicating his Eastern Divan to Goethe, the cultural icon par excellence, Iqbal's Payam-i-Mashriq constituted both a reply as well as a corrective to the Western Divan of Goethe. For by stylizing himself as the representative of the East, Iqbal endeavored to talk on equal terms to Goethe as the representative of West.[95]
Iqbal's revolutionary works through his poetry affected the Muslims of the subcontinent. Iqbal thought that Muslims had long been suppressed by the colonial enlargement and growth of the West. For this concept, Iqbal is recognised as the "Poet of the East".[89][96][97]
So to conclude, let me cite Annemarie Schimmel in Gabriel's Wing who lauds Iqbal's "unique way of weaving a grand tapestry of thought from eastern and western yarns" (p. xv), a creative activity which, to cite my own volume Revisioning Iqbal, endows Muhammad Iqbal with the stature of a "universalist poet" and thinker whose principal aim was to explore mitigating alternative discourses to construct a bridge between the "East" and the "West."[95]
The Urdu world is very familiar with Iqbal as the "Poet of the East".
Iran
In Iran, Iqbal is known as Iqbāl-e Lāhorī (Persian: اقبال لاهوری) (Iqbal of Lahore). Iqbal's Asrare-i-Khudi and Bal-i-Jibreel are particularly popular in Iran. At the same time, many scholars in Iran have recognised the importance of Iqbal's poetry in inspiring and sustaining the Iranian Revolution of 1979.[98][99] During the early phases of the revolutionary movement, it was common to see people gathering in a park or corner to listen to someone reciting Iqbal's Persian poetry, which is why people of all ages in Iran today are familiar with at least some of his poetry, notably Zabur-i-Ajam.[100][99]
By the early 1950s, Iqbal became known among the intelligentsia of Iran. Iranian poet laureate
In 1952, Iranian Prime Minister
Iqbal became even more popular in Iran in the 1970s. His verses appeared on banners, and his poetry was recited at meetings of intellectuals. Iqbal inspired many intellectuals, including
Key Iranian thinkers and leaders who were influenced by Iqbal's poetry during the rise of the Iranian revolution include Khamenei, Shariati and Soroush, although much of the revolutionary guard was familiar with Iqbal's poetry.[103] At the inauguration of the First Iqbal Summit in Tehran (1986), Khamenei stated that in its "conviction that the Quran and Islam are to be made the basis of all revolutions and movements", Iran was "exactly following the path that was shown to us by Iqbal".[103] Shariati, who has been described as a core ideologue for the Iranian Revolution, described Iqbal as a figure who brought a message of "rejuvenation", "awakening" and "power" to the Muslim world.[104]
Arab countries
Iqbal has an audience in the Arab world, and in Egypt one of his poems has been sung by Umm Kulthum, the most famous modern Egyptian artist, while among his modern admirers there are influential literary figures such as Farouk Shousha.[105] In Saudi Arabia, among the important personalities who were influenced by Iqbal there was Abdullah bin Faisal Al Saud, a member of the Saudi royal family and himself a poet.[106]
Turkey
In 2016, Turkey's Minister for Culture and Tourism Nabi Avcı presented the Dost Award to Walid Iqbal, the grandson of Iqbal, in order to honour Iqbal's "services to Islam", the ceremony being held in Konya, the resting place of Rumi.[108]
Western countries
Iqbal's views on the Western world have been applauded by Westerners, including
[Iqbal is] great for his passionate condemnation of weak will and passiveness, his angry protest against inequality, discrimination and oppression in all forms, i.e., economic, social, political, national, racial, religious, etc., his preaching of optimism, an active attitude towards life and man's high purpose in the world, in a word, he is great for his assertion of the noble ideals and principles of humanism, democracy, peace and friendship among peoples.[110]
Others, including Wilfred Cantwell Smith, stated that with Iqbal's anti-capitalist holdings, he was "anti-intellect", because "capitalism fosters intellect".[110] Freeland Abbott objected to Iqbal's views of the West, saying that they were based on the role of imperialism and that Iqbal was not immersed enough in Western culture to learn about the various benefits of the modern democracies, economic practices and science.[110] Critics of Abbot's viewpoint note that Iqbal was raised and educated in the European way of life, and spent enough time there to grasp the general concepts of Western civilization.[110]
Legacy
Iqbal is widely commemorated in Pakistan, where he is regarded as the ideological founder of the state. Iqbal is the
In India, his song "
The Government of Madhya Pradesh in India awards the Iqbal Samman, named in honour of the poet, every year at the Bharat Bhavan to Indian writers for their contributions to Urdu literature and poetry.[115]
The Pakistani government and public organizations have sponsored the establishment of educational institutions, colleges, and schools dedicated to Iqbal and have established the Iqbal Academy Pakistan to research, teach and preserve his works, literature and philosophy. The Allama Iqbal Stamps Society was established for the promotion of Iqbal in philately and in other hobbies. His son Javed Iqbal served as a justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. Javaid Manzil was Iqbal's last residence.[116]
Gallery
-
Father of Iqbal (Shaikh Noor Muhammad)
-
At a party during the 2nd Round Table Conference in London in 1931
-
A view of the conference in West Jerusalem. Iqbal is seen sitting on the extreme right in the first row (1931).
-
Iqbal reception given by the National League, London, in 1932
-
Iqbal in 1934
-
Iqbal in a reception given by citizens of Lahore in 1933
-
Iqbal at Shimla in 1930s
-
Iqbal in Afghanistan with Sulmain Nadavi and Ross Masood
-
Iqbal
-
Iqbal supposedly in 1933
Bibliography
- Prose book in Urdu
- Ilm ul Iqtisad (1903)[48]
- Prose books in English
- The Development of Metaphysics in Persia (1908)[49][48]
- The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (1930)[49][48]
- Poetic books in Persian
- Asrar-i-Khudi (1915)[48]
- Rumuz-i-Bekhudi (1917)[48]
- Payam-i-Mashriq (1923)[48]
- Zabur-i-Ajam (1927)[48]
- Javid Nama (1932)[48]
- Pas Cheh Bayed Kard ai Aqwam-e-Sharq (1936)[48]
- Armughan-e-Hijaz (1938)[49][48][63] (in Persian and Urdu)
- Poetic books in Urdu
- Bang-i-Dara (1924)[48]
- Bal-i-Jibril (1935)[48]
- Zarb-i Kalim (1936)[48]
See also
References
- ^ ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5,
Muhammad Iqbal, South Asian poet and ideological innovator, wrote poetry in Urdu and Persian and discursive prose, primarily in English, of particular significance in the formulation of a national ethos for Pakistan.
- ISBN 978-0-19-561324-7,
"Iqbal it is true, is essentially a poet of Islam ... the Islam which provided a new light of thought and learning to the world, and of heroic action and glorious deeds. He was devoted to the Prophet (PBUH) and believe his message." (from the foreword by Rafiq Zakaria, p. 9)
- ISBN 978-0-19-906616-2. Quote: "In Persian, ... he published six volumes of mainly long poems between 1915 and 1936, ... more or less complete works on philosophical themes" (p. xiii)"
- ISBN 978-1-107-00886-1,
Iqbal was elected to the Punjab Legislative Council in 1927 and held various posts both in the All-India Muslim League and the Punjab Provincial Muslim League.
- ISBN 978-0-19-906616-2. Quote: "In Urdu, Iqbal is allowed to have been far the greatest poet of this century, and by most critics to be the only equal of Ghalib(1797–1869). ... the Urdu poems, addressed to a real and familiar audience close at hand, have the merit of being direct, spontaneous utterances on tangible subjects. (p. xiii)"
- ^ McDonough, Sheila D (5 November 2020), Muhammad Iqbal, Encyclopedia Britannica, retrieved 7 February 2021,
He is considered the greatest poet in Urdu of the 20th century
- ISBN 978-81-8400-656-8,
Responding to this call, he published a collection of Urdu poems, Bal-e-Jibril (The Wings of Gabriel) in 1935 and Zarb-e Kalim (The Stroke of the Rod of Moses) in 1936. Through this, Iqbal achieved the status of the greatest Urdu poet in the twentieth century.
- ISBN 978-0-521-66993-1,
In India, the ghazal and mathnawi forms were adapted in Urdu to express new social and ideological concerns, beginning in the work of the poet Altaf Husayn Hali (1837–1914) and continuing in the poetry of Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938). In the poetry of Iqbal, which he wrote in Persian, to speak to a wider Muslim audience, as well as Urdu, a memory of the past achievements of Islam is combined with a plea for reform. He is considered the greatest Urdu poet of the twentieth century.
- ^ ISBN 978-1-107-00886-1,
In 1930, he presided over the meeting of the All-India Muslim League in Allahabad. It was here that he delivered his famous address in which he outlined his vision of a cultural and political framework that would ensure the fullest development of the Muslims of India.
- ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9,
Sir Syed Ahmed had brought rationalism and the desire for knowledge and progress to the Indian Muslims; Muhammad Iqbal brought them inspiration and philosophy. Next to the Quran, there is no single influence upon the consciousness of the Pakistani intelligentsia so powerful as Iqbal's poetry. In his own time, it kindled the enthusiasm of Muslim intellectuals for the values of Islam and rallied the Muslim community once again to the banner of their faith. For this reason, Iqbal is looked upon today as the spiritual founder of Pakistan.
- ^ Platts, John T. (John Thompson) (1884), A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English, London: W. H. Allen & Co., retrieved 6 February 2021
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- ISBN 978-1-134-59937-0.
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- ^ Mushtaq, Faraz. "Life of Allama Iqbal". International Iqbal Society (Formerly DISNA). Retrieved 28 March 2018.
- ^ Khalid Bashir Ahmad, Kashmir: Exposing the Myth behind the Narrative, SAGE Publishing India, 2017, p. 162
- ^ Justice Dr. Nasim Hasan Shah, "Role of Iqbal in the creation of Pakistan" in The All-Pakistan Legal Decisions, Volume 35, Part 1, 1983, p. 208
- ^ Schimmel 1963, p. 37: Iqbal's mother-tongue was Panjabi, and even in his later poetry now and then a Panjabi-inspired expression occurs.
- ISBN 978-0-88706-196-7.with a natural Punjabi accent.
Leg-pulling, innocent naughtiness and hearty laughter were the marks, and religion almost always the subject, of Iqbal's conversation, which was mostly in Punjabi or in an Urdu
- ^ TNN (30 May 2015), "'Happy that Iqbal is revered here'", The Times of India. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
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- ISBN 1-84511-094-3.
- ^ Riffat Hassan, "Iqbal's Ancestry and Date of Birth" in The Pakistan Review, Volume 17 (1969), p. 5
- ISBN 978-81-7022-684-0.
- ^ The Pakistan Review, (1969) Volume 17 , p. 5
- ^ a b c d e f Sharif, Imran (21 April 2011). "Allama Iqbal's 73rd death anniversary observed with reverence". Pakistan Today. Retrieved 6 August 2012.
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Further reading
- Shafique, Khurram Ali (2014). Iqbal: His Life and Our Times. ECO Cultural Institute & Iqbal Academy Pakistan. ISBN 978-0-9571416-6-7.
- Ram Nath, Kak (1995). Autumn Leaves: Kashmiri Reminiscences. India: Vitasta. ISBN 81-86588-00-0.
- Mustansir, Mir (2006), Iqbal, I.B. Tauris, ISBN 1-84511-094-3
- ISBN 969-416-061-8.
- Sailen, Debnath (January 2010). Secularism: Western and Indian. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers. ISBN 978-81-269-1366-4.
- ISBN 0-375-50118-5.
- Annemarie, Schimmel (1963), Gabriel's Wing: a study of the religious ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal, Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill
- "Special report: The enduring vision of Iqbal 1877–1938". DAWN. 9 November 2017. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
- "Sir Muhammad Iqbal". Encyclopædia Britannica. 5 November 2023.
- ISBN 9788184006568.
- Burzine Waghmar, Annemarie Schimmel: Iqbal and Indo-Muslim Studies, Encyclopædia Iranica, New York: Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation, published online, 16 April 2018.
- Md Mahmudul Hasan, "Iqbal's and Hassan's Complaints: A Study of "To the Holy Prophet" and "SMS to Sir Muhammad Iqbal"." The Muslim World 110.2 (2020): 195–216. Iqbal's and Hassan's Complaints: A Study of "To the Holy Prophet" and "SMS to Sir Muhammad Iqbal"
- S.Aydin, Mehmet (2000). "İKBAL, Muhammed – An article published in Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam". ISBN 978-975-389-449-4.)
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: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link - Farrukhabadi, Rehmat (1962). اقبال اور عورت [Iqbal and Women] in Urdu. Sukkur: Ajaib Store Publications.
Online
- Muhammad Iqbal: poet and philosopher, in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by Sheila D. McDonough, The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, Aakanksha Gaur, Gloria Lotha, J.E. Luebering, Kenneth Pletcher and Grace Young