Allied war crimes during World War II
During
According to an article in
Policy
The
Antony Beevor describes the Soviet rape of German women during the occupation of Germany as the "greatest phenomenon of mass rape in history", and has estimated that at least 1.4 million women were raped in East Prussia, Pomerania, and Silesia alone. He asserts that Soviet women and girls liberated from slave labor in Germany were also violated.[4]
Individual commentators such as the German historian and left-wing antiwar activist
Western Allies
Canada
Murder of POW's
According to Mitch-am and Avon Hohenstaufen, the
Razing of Friesoythe
France
French Army
During the German invasion of Belgium, Belgian authorities arrested a number of suspects ("enemy Belgians and enemy foreigners") between 10 and 15 May on the orders of the auditor general Walter Ganshof van der Meersch. "It is clear that the arrests were very irresponsible and arbitrary. They just picked up some people: out of revenge, out of jealousy, because of their political beliefs, their Jewish origin or because of their foreign nationality," wrote survivor Gaby Warris.[16]
Three days later, on 19 May, 79 of these detainees were taken to Abbeville and locked up under the music kiosk on the market square. When the city of Abbeville was heavily bombed from the air by German squadrons on the night of 19 to 20 May, the French guards feared the prisoners would be released by the Germans and decided to summarily execute them.[17] Twenty-one prisoners were taken from the kiosk, placed against the wall, and shot without trial on the orders of the French Capitaine Marcel Dingeon, who was Abbeville's deputy commander. Of the dead, only four were found to have actually worked for the Germans. Dingeon killed himself several months after France surrendered. In January 1942, two French soldiers who participated in the massacre, Lieutenant René Caron and Sergeant Émile Molet, were tried by a German court-martial in wartime Paris. They were sentenced to death and executed by firing squad on 7 April 1942 at Mont-Valérien.[18]
Maquis
Following the
The
Moroccan Goumiers
French
French troops took part in the invasion of Germany, and France was assigned an occupation zone in Germany. Perry Biddiscombe quotes the original survey estimates that the French Goumiers for instance committed "385 rapes in the Constance area; 600 in Bruchsal; and 500 in Freudenstadt."[24] The soldiers are also alleged to have committed widespread rape in the Höfingen District near Leonberg.[25] Katz and Kaiser,[26] though they mention rape, found no specific occurrences in either Höfingen or Leonberg compared to other towns. Anthony Clayton, in his book France, Soldiers, and Africa,[27] devotes several pages to the criminal activities of the Goumiers, which he partially ascribes to typical practices in their homeland.
According to Norman Naimark, French Moroccan troops matched the behaviour of Soviet troops when it came to rape, in particular in the early occupation of Baden and Württemberg, provided the numbers are correct.[28]
United Kingdom
Looting, rape, and prisoner executions were committed by British soldiers at a similar scale compared to other armies throughout the war.[29] [page needed]
Indiscriminate bombing of cities
The British, with other allied nations (mainly the U.S.) carried out air raids against enemy cities during
Abuses against civilians and POWs
On 21 April 1945, British soldiers randomly selected and burned two cottages in Seedorf, Germany, in reprisal against local civilians who had hidden German soldiers in their cellars.[32] Historian Sean Longden claims that violence against German prisoners and civilians who refused to cooperate with the British army "could be ignored or made light of".[33]
After the end of the war in Europe, German prisoners in
The "London Cage", a MI19 prisoner of war facility in the UK during and immediately after the war, was subject to allegations of torture.[35] The Bad Nenndorf interrogation centre in occupied Germany, managed by the Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre, was the subject of an official inquiry in 1947, which found that there was "mental and physical torture during the interrogations" and that "personal property of the prisoners were stolen".[36]
Rape and sexual harassment
The Italian statistics record eight
Rape also took place during the
In Germany, rapes of local women were committed by British and Canadian troops.[39] Even elderly women were targeted.[39] Though the Royal Military Police tended to turn a blind eye towards abuse of German prisoners and civilians who obstructed the army, rape was considered differently. Some officers, however, treated the behaviour of their men with leniency. Some rapes were impulsively committed under the effects of alcohol or post-traumatic stress, but there were cases of premeditated attacks.[33] One such case was the rape of three German women in the town of Neustadt am Rübenberge on a single day in April 1945,[38] or the attempted rape of two local girls at gunpoint in the village of Oyle, near Nienburg, where two soldiers attempted to coerce two girls into going into a nearby wood, and, upon their refusal, one was grabbed and dragged into the woods, where, according to Longden, after she began screaming, "one of the soldiers pulled a gun to silence her. Whether intentionally or in error, the gun went off, hitting her in the throat and killing her."[39]
Unrestricted submarine warfare and shooting of shipwreck survivors
On 4 May 1940, in response to Germany's intensive
According to
On 10 September 1942, the Italian hospital ship Arno was torpedoed and sunk by RAF torpedo bombers north-east of Ras el Tin, near Tobruk. The British claimed that a decoded German radio message intimated that the vessel was carrying supplies to the Axis troops.[45] Arno was the third Italian hospital ship sunk by British aircraft after the loss of the Po in the Adriatic Sea to aerial torpedoes on 14 March 1941[46][47] and the bombing of the California off Syracuse on 11 August 1942.[48]
On 18 November 1944, the German hospital ship Tübingen was sunk by two
Looting
During
United States
- B-24 Liberator bomber, despite knowing the U-boat's location, intentions, and the presence of British seamen, killed dozens of Laconia 's survivors with bombs and strafing attacks, forcing U-156 to cast their remaining survivors into the sea and crash diveto avoid being destroyed.
- U.S. Navyhad waged unrestricted submarine warfare in the Pacific from the very first day the U.S. entered the war.
- Canicattì massacre: killing of Italian civilians by Lieutenant Colonel McCaffrey. A confidential inquiry was made, but McCaffrey was never charged with an offense relating to the incident. He died in 1954. This incident remained virtually unknown until Joseph S. Salemi of New York University, whose father witnessed it, publicized it.[54][55]
- In the Biscari massacre, which consists of two instances of mass murders, US troops of the 45th Infantry Division killed roughly 75 prisoners of war, mostly Italian.[56][57]
- Near the French village of paratroopers.[2]
- Gorla massacre: On 20 October 1944, a U.S. B-24 heavy bomber belonging to the Fifteenth Air Force unloaded a set of approximately 80 tons of bombs on the heavily populated Milanese suburbs of Gorla and Precotto. The main stairwell of Gorla's Francesco Crispi Elementary School was hit as the children and school personnel were rushing down to the air raid shelters. The explosion killed 184 of the 200 children as well as the entire staff of 19 teachers at the school.[58][59][60][61] There were some 614 victims in the neighborhood as a whole. In 2019 Milan's mayor Giuseppe Sala appealed to U.S. authorities to apologize for the bombing.[62]
- In the aftermath of the Stephen Ambrose related: "I've interviewed well over 1000 combat veterans. Only one of them said he shot a prisoner ... Perhaps as many as one-third of the veterans ... however, related incidents in which they saw other GIs shooting unarmed German prisoners who had their hands up."[65]
- Chenogne massacre: On 1 January 1945, members of the 11th Armored Division executed 80 Wehrmacht soldiers, which were assembled in a field and shot with machine guns.[66] The events were covered up at the time, and none of the perpetrators were ever punished. Postwar historians believe the killings were carried out on verbal orders by senior commanders that "no prisoners were to be taken".[67] General George S. Patton confirmed in his diary that the Americans "...also murdered 50 odd German med [sic]. I hope we can conceal this".[68]
- Jungholzhausen massacre: On 15 April 1945, the 254th Infantry Regiment of the 63rd Infantry Division executed between 13 and 30 Waffen SS and Wehrmacht prisoners of war.[69]
- Treseburg massacre: On 19 April 1945, the 18th Infantry Regiment of the 1st Infantry Division captured and murdered five German soldiers and nine unarmed Hitler Youths near the village of Treseburg, in reprisal for losing a soldier.[70]
- Lippach massacre: On 22 April 1945 American soldiers from the 23rd Tank Battalion of the 12th Armored Division killed 24 Waffen SS soldiers who had been taken prisoners of war in the German town of Lippach. Members of the same unit are also alleged to have raped 20 women in the town.[71]
- The Dachau liberation reprisals: Upon the liberation of Dachau concentration camp on 29 April 1945, about a dozen guards in the camp were shot by a machine gunner who was guarding them. Other soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, 157th Infantry Regiment, of the US 45th (Thunderbird) Division killed other guards who resisted. In all, about 30 were killed, according to the commanding officer Felix L. Sparks.[72][73] Later, Colonel Howard Buechner wrote that more than 500 were killed.[74][75]
- U-546 were tortured by US military personnel. Historian Philip K. Lundeberg has written that the beating and torture of U-546's survivors was a singular atrocity motivated by the interrogators' desire to quickly get information on what the U.S. believed were potential V-1 flying bombs or V-2 rocket attacks on the continental US by German submarines.[76][77]
- Historian Peter Lieb has found that many U.S. and Canadian units were ordered not to take enemy prisoners during the D-Day landings in Normandy. If this view is correct, it may explain the fate of 64 German prisoners (out of the 130 captured) who did not make it to the POW collecting point on Omaha Beach on the day of the landings.[1]
- During the Allied invasion in Sicily, some massacres of civilians by US troops were reported, including the Vittoria one, where 12 Italians died (including a 17-year-old boy),[78] and in Piano Stella, where a group of civilians were murdered.[79]
According to an article in
Among American WWII veterans who admitted to having committed war crimes was former
- Revenge killings in the heat of battle. Sheeran told Brandt that, when a German soldier had just killed his close friends and then tried to surrender, he would often "send him to hell, too." He described often witnessing similar behavior by fellow GIs.[80]
- Orders from unit commanders during a mission. When describing his first murder for organized crime, Sheeran recalled: "It was just like when an officer would tell you to take a couple of German prisoners back behind the line and for you to 'hurry back'. You did what you had to do."[81]
- The Dachau massacre and other reprisal killings of concentration camp guards and trustee inmates.[82]
- Calculated attempts to dehumanize and degrade German POWs. While Sheeran's unit was climbing the Harz Mountains, they came upon a Wehrmacht mule train carrying food and drink up the mountainside. The female cooks were first allowed to leave unmolested, then Sheeran and his fellow GIs "ate what we wanted and soiled the rest with our waste." Then the Wehrmacht mule drivers were given shovels and ordered to "dig their own shallow graves." Sheeran later joked that they did so without complaint, likely hoping that he and his buddies would change their minds. But the mule drivers were shot and buried in the holes they had dug. Sheeran explained that by then, "I had no hesitation in doing what I had to do."[83]
War rape
Secret wartime files made public only in 2006 reveal that
In
Although non-fraternization policies were instituted for the Americans in Germany, the phrase "copulation without conversation is not fraternization" was used as a motto by United States Army troops.[90] The journalist Osmar White, a war correspondent from Australia who served with the American troops during the war, wrote that
After the fighting moved on to German soil, there was a good deal of rape by combat troops and those immediately following them. The incidence varied between unit and unit according to the attitude of the commanding officer. In some cases offenders were identified, tried by court martial, and punished. The army legal branch was reticent, but admitted that for brutal or perverted sexual offences against German women, some soldiers had been shot – particularly if they happened to be Negroes. Yet I know for a fact that many women were raped by white Americans. No action was taken against the culprits. In one sector a report went round that a certain very distinguished army commander made the wisecrack, 'Copulation without conversation does not constitute fraternisation.'[91]
A typical victimization with sexual assault by drunken American personnel marching through occupied territory involved threatening a German family with weapons, forcing one or more women to engage in sex, and putting the entire family out on the street afterward.[90]
As in the eastern sector of the occupation, the number of rapes peaked in 1945, but a high rate of violence against the German and Austrian populations by the Americans lasted at least into the first half of 1946, with five cases of dead German women found in American barracks in May and June 1946 alone.[89]
Carol Huntington writes that the American soldiers who raped German women and then left gifts of food for them may have permitted themselves to view the act as a prostitution rather than rape. Citing the work of a Japanese historian alongside this suggestion, Huntington writes that Japanese women who begged for food "were raped and soldiers sometimes left food for those they raped."[89]
The black soldiers of America's segregated occupation force were both more likely to be charged with rape and severely punished.[89] Heide Fehrenbach writes that, while the American black soldiers were in fact by no means free from indiscipline,
The point, rather, is that American officials exhibited an explicit interest in a soldier's race, and then only if he were black, when reporting behavior they feared would undermine either the status or the political aims of the U.S. Military Government in Germany.[92]
In 2015, German news magazine Der Spiegel reported that German historian Miriam Gebhardt "believes that members of the US military raped as many as 190,000 German women by the time West Germany regained sovereignty in 1955, with most of the assaults taking place in the months immediately following the US invasion of Nazi Germany. The author bases her claims in large part on reports kept by Bavarian priests in the summer of 1945."[93]
Eastern Allies
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union had not signed the
One of the Soviet Union's earliest war crimes was the
The most widely-known war crimes committed by Soviet troops against citizens and soldiers are:
- the Metgethen massacre: mass murder and rape of 32-3,000 (German claim) German citizens by Red Army soldiers
- the Nemmersdorf massacre: mass murder and rape of ~74 German citizens (as well as ~50 French and Belgian POWs) by the Red Army's 2nd Guards Tank Corps
- the Treuenbritzen massacre: mass murder and rape of German citizens by Soviet soldiers
- the Massacre of Broniki: mass murder of 153 German POWs by Soviet soldiers
- the Massacre of Grischino: mass torture, rape and murder of Axis 596 POWs (mostly nurses, construction workers and communications personnel) and civilians by Soviet soldiers
- the Massacre of Feodosia: torture, mutilation and murder of 160 wounded German soldiers by the Red Army and Soviet Navy
- the Naliboki massacre: looting, razing and mass murder in the town of Naliboki, Belarus by Soviet Partisans, resulting in the deaths of 127-129 Polish civilians
Late in the war, Yugoslavia's communist partisans complained about the rapes and looting committed by the Soviet Army while traversing their country. Milovan Djilas later recalled Joseph Stalin's response,
Does Djilas, who is himself a writer, not know what human suffering and the human heart are? Can't he understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometers through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle?[103]
Soviet war correspondent Natalya Gesse observed the Red Army in 1945: "The Russian soldiers were raping every German female from eight to eighty. It was an army of rapists". Polish women as well as Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian slave laborers were also mass raped by the Red Army. The Soviet war correspondent Vasily Grossman described: "Liberated Soviet girls quite often complain that our soldiers rape them".[4] Soviet premier Joseph Stalin refused to punish the offenders.[104]
The
Yugoslavia
Armed conflict | Perpetrator | ||
---|---|---|---|
World War II in Yugoslavia | Yugoslav Partisans | ||
Incident | Type of crime | Persons responsible |
Notes |
Bleiburg repatriations | Alleged war crimes, crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. | No prosecutions. | The victims were mostly Yugoslav collaborationist troops (ethnic Croats, Serbs, and Slovenes), but also included a number of civilians. They were executed without trial in an act of vengeance for the genocide committed by the pro-Axis collaborationist states (in particular the Ustaše) installed by the Nazis during the German occupation of Yugoslavia.[106] |
Foibe massacres | War crimes, crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. Ethnic cleansing. | No prosecutions.[107] | Following Italy's 1943 armistice with the Allied powers up to 1947, Kvarner and Dalmatia a number between 11,000[108][109] and 20,000[110] of the local ethnic Italian population (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), as well against anti-communists in general (even Croats and Slovenes), usually associated with Fascism, Nazism and collaboration with Axis,[110][108] as well as against real, potential or presumed opponents of Tito communism.[111] The type of attack was state terrorism,[110][112] reprisal killings,[110][113] and ethnic cleansing against Italians.[110][114][115][116][117] The foibe massacres were followed by the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus.[118]
|
Communist purges in Serbia in 1944–45
|
War crimes, crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. | No prosecutions. | 1944–1945 killings of ethnic Germans (Danube Swabians), prisoners of war and civilians.[119]
|
Kočevski Rog massacre | War crimes, crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. | No prosecutions. | Massacres of prisoners of war, and their families.[120] |
Macelj massacre | Crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. | No prosecutions. | Massacres of prisoners of war, and their families.[121] |
Tezno trench
|
Crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. | No prosecutions. | Massacres of prisoners of war, and their families.[122] |
Barbara Pit
|
Crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. | No prosecutions. | Massacres of prisoners of war, and their families.[123] |
Prevalje mass grave | Crimes against humanity: murder of prisoners of war and civilians. | No prosecutions. | Massacres of prisoners of war, and their families.[124] |
Asia and the Pacific War
Allied soldiers in the Pacific and Asian theatres sometimes killed Japanese soldiers who were attempting to surrender or after they had surrendered. A social historian of the Pacific War, John W. Dower, states that "by the final years of the war against Japan, a truly vicious cycle had developed in which the Japanese reluctance to surrender had meshed horrifically with Allied disinterest in taking prisoners".[125] Dower suggests that most Japanese personnel were told that they would be "killed or tortured" if they fell into Allied hands and, as a consequence, most of those faced with defeat on the battlefield fought to the death or committed suicide.[126] In addition, it was held to be shamefully disgraceful for a Japanese soldier to surrender, leading many to commit suicide or to fight to the death regardless of any beliefs concerning their possible treatment as POWs. In fact, the Japanese Field Service Code said that surrender was not permissible.[127]
And while it was "not official policy" for Allied personnel to take no prisoners, "over wide reaches of the Asian battleground it was everyday practice".[128]
Australia
According to historian
Major General
China
There has been relatively little research into the general treatment of Japanese prisoners of war taken by Chinese Nationalist forces, such as the National Revolutionary Army (NRA), during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–45), according to R. J. Rummel.[132] However, civilians and conscripts, as well as Japanese civilians in China, were frequently maltreated by the Chinese military. Rummel says that Chinese peasants "often had no less to fear from their own soldiers than ... from the Japanese".[133] The Nationalist military was reinforced by recruits gained through violent campaigns of conscription directed at Chinese civilians. According to Rummel:
This was a deadly affair in which men were kidnapped for the army, rounded up indiscriminately by
press-gangs or army units among those on the roads or in the towns and villages, or otherwise gathered together. Many men, some the very young and old, were killed resisting or trying to escape. Once collected, they would be roped or chained together and marched, with little food or water, long distances to camp. They often died or were killed along the way, sometimes less than 50 percent reaching camp alive. Then recruit camp was no better, with hospitals resembling Nazi concentration camps... Probably 3,081,000 died during the Sino-Japanese War; likely another 1,131,000 during the Civil War—4,212,000 dead in total. Just during conscription [emphasis added].[134]
Within some intakes of Nationalist conscripts, there was a death rate of 90% from disease, starvation or violence before they commenced training.[135]
Examples of war crimes committed by Chinese associated forces include:
- in 1937 near Shanghai, the killing, torture and assault of Japanese POWs and Chinese civilians accused of collaboration, were recorded in photographs taken by Swiss businessman Tom Simmen.[136] In 1996, Simmen's son released the pictures, showing Nationalist Chinese soldiers committing summary executions by decapitation and shooting, as well as public torture.
- the Yan'an Rectification Movement; from 1942 to 1945 in the Communist-controlled zones, ordered by Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party. Over 10,000 people were tortured or killed and it is often regarded by many as the beginning of Mao Zedong's cult of personality.
- the
- Nationalist troops in Hubei Province, during May 1943, ordered whole towns to evacuate and then "plundered" them; any civilians who refused or were unable to leave, were killed.[133]
United Kingdom
During the Burma campaign, there are recorded instances of British troops removing gold teeth from dead Japanese troops and displaying Japanese skulls as trophies.[138]
During the
United States
On January 26, 1943, the submarine
On 4 March 1943, during and after the Battle of the Bismarck Sea (March 3–5, 1943), General George Kenney ordered U.S. patrol boats and Allied aircraft to attack Japanese rescue vessels, as well as the approximately 1,000 survivors from eight sunken Japanese troop transport ships on life rafts and swimming or floating in the sea.[146][147] This was later State justified on the grounds that the rescued servicemen were next to their destination, and would have been rapidly landed at their military destination and promptly returned to active service in the battle.[146][148] Many of the Allied aircrew accepted the attacks as necessary, while others were sickened.[149]
American soldiers in the Pacific often deliberately killed Japanese soldiers who had surrendered. According to Richard J. Aldrich, a professor of history at the University of Warwick, who has published a study of the diaries kept by United States and Australian soldiers, they sometimes massacred prisoners of war.[150] Dower states that in "many instances ... Japanese who did become prisoners were killed on the spot or en route to prison compounds".[128] According to Aldrich it was common practice for U.S. troops not to take prisoners.[151] This analysis is supported by British historian Niall Ferguson,[152] who also says that, in 1943, "a secret [U.S.] intelligence report noted that only the promise of ice cream and three days leave would ... induce American troops not to kill surrendering Japanese".[152]
Ferguson states such practices played a role in the ratio of Japanese prisoners to dead being 1:100 in late 1944. That same year, efforts were taken by Allied high commanders to suppress "take no prisoners" attitudes,[152] among their own personnel (as these were affecting intelligence gathering) and to encourage Japanese soldiers to surrender. Ferguson adds that measures by Allied commanders to improve the ratio of Japanese prisoners to Japanese dead, resulted in it reaching 1:7, by mid-1945. Nevertheless, taking no prisoners was still standard practice among US troops at the Battle of Okinawa, in April–June 1945.[152] Ferguson also suggests that "it was not only the fear of disciplinary action or of dishonor that deterred German and Japanese soldiers from surrendering. More important for most soldiers was the perception that prisoners would be killed by the enemy anyway, and so one might as well fight on."[153]
US historian James J. Weingartner attributes the very low number of Japanese in US POW compounds to two important factors, a Japanese reluctance to surrender and a widespread American "conviction that the Japanese were "animals" or "subhuman" and unworthy of the normal treatment accorded to POWs.[157] The latter reason is supported by Ferguson, who says that "Allied troops often saw the Japanese in the same way that Germans regarded Russians—as Untermenschen".[152]
Mutilation of Japanese war dead
In the Pacific theater, Allied servicemen engaged in
The collection of Japanese body parts began quite early in the war, prompting a September 1942 order for disciplinary action against such souvenir taking.
When Japanese remains were repatriated from the Mariana Islands after the war, roughly 60 percent were missing their skulls.[159]
In a 13 June 1944 memorandum, the US Army
These practices were also in violation of the unwritten customary rules of land warfare and could lead to the death penalty.[157] The US Navy JAG mirrored that opinion one week later, and also added that "the atrocious conduct of which some US personnel were guilty could lead to retaliation by the Japanese which would be justified under international law".[157]
Okinawa
U.S. military personnel raped Okinawan women during the Battle of Okinawa in 1945.[162]
Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes based on several years of research:
Soon after the U.S. Marines landed, all the women of a village on Motobu Peninsula fell into the hands of American soldiers. At the time, there were only women, children, and old people in the village, as all the young men had been mobilized for the war. Soon after landing, the Marines "mopped up" the entire village, but found no signs of Japanese forces. Taking advantage of the situation, they started 'hunting for women' in broad daylight, and those women who were hiding in the village or nearby air raid shelters were dragged out one after another.[163]
According to interviews carried out by The New York Times and published by them in 2000, several elderly people from an Okinawan village confessed that after the United States had won the Battle of Okinawa, three armed Marines kept coming to the village every week to force the villagers to gather all the local women, who were then carried off into the hills and raped. The article goes deeper into the matter and claims that the villagers' tale—true or not—is part of a "dark, long-kept secret" the unraveling of which "refocused attention on what historians say is one of the most widely ignored crimes of the war": 'the widespread rape of Okinawan women by American servicemen."[164] Although Japanese reports of rape were largely ignored at the time, academic estimates have been that as many as 10,000 Okinawan women may have been raped. It has been claimed that the rape was so prevalent that most Okinawans over age 65 around the year 2000 either knew or had heard of a woman who was raped in the aftermath of the war. Military officials denied the mass rapings, and all surviving veterans refused The New York Times' request for an interview.[165]
Professor of East Asian Studies and expert on Okinawa, Steve Rabson, said: "I have read many accounts of such rapes in Okinawan newspapers and books, but few people know about them or are willing to talk about them."[165] He notes that plenty of old local books, diaries, articles and other documents refer to rapes by American soldiers of various races and backgrounds.
An explanation given for why the US military has no record of any rapes is that few—if any—Okinawan women reported abuse, mostly out of fear and embarrassment. According to
There is substantial evidence that the U.S. had at least some knowledge of what was going on. Samuel Saxton, a retired captain, explained that the American veterans and witnesses may have intentionally kept the rape a secret, largely out of shame: "It would be unfair for the public to get the impression that we were all a bunch of rapists after we worked so hard to serve our country."[165] Military officials formally denied the mass rapes, and all surviving related veterans refused request for interviews from The New York Times. Masaie Ishihara, a sociology professor, supports this: "There is a lot of historical amnesia out there, many people don't want to acknowledge what really happened."[165] Author George Feifer in his book Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb, noted that by 1946 there had been fewer than 10 reported cases of rape in Okinawa. He explained that it was "partly because of shame and disgrace, partly because Americans were victors and occupiers". Feifer claimed: "In all there were probably thousands of incidents, but the victims' silence kept rape another dirty secret of the campaign."[166]
However, American professor of Japanese studies Michael S. Molasky and some other authors have argued that they noted that Okinawan civilians "were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy."[167][168] According to Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by the American Mark Selden, the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned."[169]
Post-war
According to some authors, there were 1,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa Prefecture after the Japanese surrender,[162] however author Brian Walsh states that this claim originates from a misreading of Japanese Government crime figures that had actually reported 1,326 criminal incidents of all types involving American forces, including an unspecified number of rapes.[170]
Comparative death rates of POWs
According to James D. Morrow, "Death rates of POWs held is one measure of adherence to the standards of the treaties because substandard treatment leads to death of prisoners". The "democratic states generally provide good treatment of POWs".[171]
Killed by the Allied powers
- German POWs in East European (not including the Soviet Union) hands 32.9%[152]
- German soldiers held by Soviet Union: 15–33% (14.7% in The Dictators by Richard Overy, 35.8% in Ferguson)[152]
- Italian soldiers held by the Soviet Union: 79%[172]
- Japanese POWs held by Soviet Union: 10% [citation needed]
- German POWs in British hands 0.03%[152]
- German POWs in American hands 0.15%[152]
- German POWs in French hands 2.58%[152]
- Japanese POWs held by U.S.: relatively low[clarification needed], mainly suicides according to James D. Morrow.[173]
- Japanese POWs in Chinese hands: 24% [citation needed]
Killed by Axis powers
- US and British Commonwealth POWs held by Germany: ≈4%[171]
- Soviet POWs held by Germany: 57.5%[152]
- Italian POWs and military internees held by Germany: between 6% and 8.4%[note 2]
- Western Allied POWs held by Japan: 27%[174] (Figures for Japan may be misleading, as sources indicate that either 10,800[175] or 19,000[176] of 35,756 fatalities among Allied POW's were from "friendly fire" at sea when their transport ships were sunk. The Geneva convention required the labelling of hospital ships as such, but had no provision for the labelling of such craft as POW ships. All sides killed many of their own POWs when sinking enemy ships.)
Summary table
Origin | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Soviet Union | United States and United Kingdom |
China | Western Allies | Germany | Japan | ||
Held by | Soviet Union | – | – | – | – | 14.70 –35.80 |
10.00 |
United Kingdom | – | – | – | – | 0.03 | ||
United States | – | – | – | – | 0.15 | varying | |
France | – | – | – | – | 2.58 | ||
East European
|
– | – | – | – | 32.90 | ||
Germany | 57.50 | 4.00 | – | – | |||
Japan | included in Western Allies (27) | not documented | 27.00 | – | – |
Portrayal
Holocaust denial literature
The focus on Allied atrocities during the war has been a theme of
Japanese neo-nationalists
Japanese neo-nationalists argue that Allied war crimes and the shortcomings of the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal were equivalent to the war crimes committed by Japanese forces during the war.[citation needed] American historian John W. Dower has written that this position is "a kind of historiographic cancellation of immorality—as if the transgressions of others exonerate one's own crimes".[179] While right-wing forces in Japan have tried to push for their perspective on war-time history, they have been unsuccessful due to opposition both within and outside Japan.[180]
See also
- War crimes committed by the Axis powers and their collaborators
- German war crimes
- Italian war crimes
- Japanese war crimes
- Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia
- The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia
- Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia
- Allied war crimes
- American war crimes
- American mutilation of Japanese war dead
- British war crimes
- Churchill's advocacy of chemical strike against German cities
- Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services, which was involved in experiments on German and Japanese prisoners of war
- Communist purges in Serbia in 1944–1945
- Foibe massacres
- Thiaroye massacre
- Soviet partisans, atrocities against civilians in Finland
- Bleiburg repatriations
- Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)
- Forced labour of Germans after World War II
- Forced labour of Germans in the Soviet Union
- Soviet war crimes
- Other
- Crimes against humanity
- Ethnic cleansing
- Genocide
- Genocides in history
- List of ethnic cleansing campaigns
- List of genocides
- List of war crimes
- Looted art
- Philosophy of history
- Taken by Force (book)
- Victor's justice
- World War II casualties
Notes
- ^ The caption for the photograph in the US National Archives reads, "SC208765, Soldiers of the 42nd Infantry Division, US Seventh Army, order SS men to come forward when one of their number tried to escape from the Dachau, Germany, concentration camp after it was captured by US forces. Men on the ground in background feign death by falling as the guards fired a volley at the fleeing SS men. (157th Regt. 4/29/45)."[53]
Lt. Colonel Felix L. Sparks disputed this and thought that it "represented the initial step in the cover-up of the execution of German guards".[53] - ^ About 43,600 deaths on a total of approx 730,000 POWs and military internees. Another 13,269 were killed between September 1943 and February 1944 in the sinking of seven ships carrying them from Greece to German-controlled ports. A further 5,000 to 6,000 Italian POW were murdered by the Germans after they had surrendered in the Massacre of the Acqui Division.
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Further reading
- Harris, Justin Michael. "American Soldiers and POW Killing in the European Theater of World War II" [1] Archived 18 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine