Amalek
Amalek (
Etymology
In some rabbinical interpretations, Amalek is etymologised as am lak, 'a people who lick (blood)',[8] but most scholars regard the origin to be unknown.[9]
Amalek in the Hebrew Bible
According to the Hebrew Bible, Amalek was the son of
Amalekites
Amalek is described in Genesis 36:16 as the "chief of Amalek" among the "chiefs of the sons of Esau",from which it is surmised that he ruled a clan or territory named after him. In the oracle of Balaam, Amalek was called the "first of the nations".[13] One modern scholar believes this attests to Amalek's high antiquity,[14] while traditional commentator Rashi states: "He came before all of them to make war with Israel".[15] The Amalekites (/ˈæməlɛkaɪts/[16]) were claimed to be Amalek's descendants through the genealogy of Esau.[17]
According to the Hebrew Bible, the Amalekites inhabited the Negev and Sinai.[3] They appear to have lived a nomadic or seminomadic lifestyle along the fringes of southern Canaan's agricultural zone.[4] This is probably based on the association of this tribal group with the steppe region of ancient Israel and the area of Kadesh (Genesis 14:7).
As a people, the Amalekites are identified throughout the Hebrew Bible as a recurrent enemy of the Israelites:[17]
- In Exodus 17:8–16, during watch from a nearby hill. When Moses' hands holding his staff are raised, the Israelites prevail, but when his hands are lowered, the Israelites falter. He sits with his hands held up by Aaron and Hur until sunset, securing the Israelite victory.
- In Deuteronomy 25:17–19, The Israelites are specifically commanded to "King Saul ultimately loses favor with Yahweh for failing to kill King Agag and the best livestock of the Amalekites in 1 Samuel 15in defiance of these commandments.
- In Numbers 14:45, the Amalekites and Canaanites kill a group of Israelites that tried to enter the hill country of the Amorites without Moses's permission.
- In Judges 3:13, Amalek, and their Moabite and Ammonite allies, defeat Israel so that the Moabites could oppress them. Judges 10:11–13 confirms Amalek as being one of the many oppressors of Israel.
- In Judges 6:1–6, Amalek, and their Midianite allies, destroy Israelite farms "as far as Gaza", inducing a famine. They also help the Midianites wage wars against Israel, according to Judges 6:32–34 and Judges 7:11–13.
- In 1 Samuel 15:1–9, Samuel identifies Amalek as the enemy of Israelites, saying "Thus says the Lord of hosts: I will punish Amalek for what he did to Israel, how he ambushed him on the way when he came up from Egypt," a reference to Exodus.[18] God then commands Saul to destroy the Amalekites, by killing man, woman, infant and suckling.[19] This massacre is believed to be a retelling of the raids in 1 Samuel 14:48[20] although it additionally specifies that it occurred in the "city of Amalek", which was believed to be the "principal place of arms"[21] or the "metropolis" of Amalek.[22] In 1 Samuel 15:33, Samuel identifies king Agag of Amalek as an enemy and killer, saying "As your sword has made women childless, so shall your mother be childless among women."
- In 1 Samuel 27:8–9, David and his men conducts raids against the Amalekites and their Geshurite and Gezirite allies. He killed every man and woman but took sheep, cattle, donkey, camels and clothing. These Amalekites were theorized to be refugees who fled from Saul or a separate Amalekite faction that dwelt to the south of Israel. Gili Kluger believes these narratives were anti-Saul propaganda, designed to make him appear weak compared to David, since no losses were attributed to David.[23]
- According to 1 Samuel 30:1–2, the Amalekites invaded the
- In 2 Samuel 1:5–10, an Amalekite tells David that he found Saul leaning on his spear after the
- In 1 Chronicles 4:43, the Simeonites kill the remaining survivors of Amalek and live in their settlements.
- In Psalm 83:7, Amalek joins Israel's other historic enemies in annihilating Israel. Their attempts are thwarted by God. Although most scholars believe the passage refers to a real historical event, they are unsure which event it should be identified with.[27] One likely answer is that it occurred during the rise of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the 9th to 7th centuries BC.[28]
Interpretation
Judaism
In the
# | Type | Commandment | Source |
---|---|---|---|
59 | Negative | Not to forget the wicked deeds which Amalek perpetrated against us[29] | "Do not forget" (Deut. 25:19) |
188 | Positive | To exterminate the seed of Amalek[30] | "You shall blot out the memory of Amalek" (Deut. 25:19) |
189 | Positive | To constantly remember what Amalek did to us[31] | "Remember what Amalek did to you" (Deut. 25:17) |
Many rabbinic authorities such as Maimonides ruled that the commandment only applies to a Jewish king or an organized community, and cannot be performed by an individual.[32] According to Rashi, the Amalekites were sorcerers who could transform themselves to resemble animals, in order to avoid capture. Thus, in 1 Samuel 15:3, it was considered necessary to destroy the livestock when destroying Amalek.[33] According to Haggahot Maimuniyyot, the commandment only applies to the future messianic era and not in present times; this limitation is widely supported by medieval authorities.[34]
Maimonides elaborates that when the Jewish people wage war against Amalek, they must request the Amalekites to accept the Seven Laws of Noah and pay a tax to the Jewish kingdom. If they refuse, they are to be executed.[35]
Other Talmudic commentators argued that the calls to spare no Amalekite or "blot out their memory" were metaphorical
Isaac S.D. Sassoon believes that the cherem commands existed to prevent the Jewish community from being endangered but believes people should think twice before literally following them.[40] Nathan Lopes Cardazo argues that the Torah's ethically questionable laws were intentional since they were a result of God working with an underdeveloped world. He believes that God appointed the Sages to help humanity evolve in their understanding of the Torah.[41]
Christianity
Theologian Charles Ellicott explains that the Amalekites were subject to cherem in the Book of Samuel for the purposes of incapacitation, due to their 'accursed' nature and the threat they posed to the commonwealth of surrounding nations.[42] Matthew Henry considers the cherem to be defensive warfare since the Amalekites were invaders.[43] John Gill describes the cherem as the law of retaliation being carried out.[44]
According to Christian Hofreiter, almost all Christian authorities and theologians have historically interpreted the cherem passages literally. He states that "there is practically no historical evidence that anyone in the Great Church" viewed them as being purely an allegory. In particular,
Paul Copan argues that the cherem commands were hyperbolic since the passages contain merisms such as "man and woman"[46] and Near Easterners valued "bravado and exaggeration" when reporting warfare.[47][48] Kluger believes this is an earnest attempt to absolve the Israelites, and their God, of moral responsibility. Nonetheless, she argues Copan's interpretation still "normalizes mass violence" and "hostility towards targeted groups".[23]
Islam
Ibn Khaldūn affirms that God ordered Saul, the king of Israel, to depose the Amalekites, which caused Haman's hostility to the Jews in the Book of Esther.[49]
Modern academia
Some commentators have discussed the ethics of the commandment to exterminate all the Amalekites, including children, and the presumption of
Kluger believes that the extermination verses can be explained by the Israelites seeing the Amalekites as their "unwelcome brother" and the "rejected son", possessing all the negative qualities that the Israelites inherently saw within themselves, which Kluger sees as a form of self-hatred. However, she notes that the Hebrew Bible is surprisingly neutral when describing the Amalekites and that the texts do not provide an adequate explanation on why they were singled out for complete annihilation, compared to the Egyptians and Canaanites for example.[23]
Ada Taggar-Cohen observes that cherem commands were not uncommon in the ancient Near East. Their purpose was to show that the deity was on the aggressor's side and that the enemy deserved said deity's wrath for their "sins". It also allowed kings to pursue militarist policies without taking moral responsibility.[58]
C.L. Crouch considers the cherem commands to be an exceptional component to Israelite and Judahite warfare since they were erratically applied, even in the early stages of national and ethnic identity formation. They were an extreme means to eradicate the threat of chaos. Similar attitudes were held by Assyrian rulers such as Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal.[59]
Historicity
No reference to Amalek or the Amalekites has been found in surviving Egyptian and Assyrian monumental inscriptions and records, even though both groups recorded various tribes and peoples of the Levant in the relevant time period(s). Therefore, Hugo Winckler concluded that there were no Amalekites and that the Biblical stories concerning them were entirely ahistorical and mythological.[60] Although archaeological research has improved knowledge about nomadic Arabs, no specific artifact or site has been linked to Amalek with certainty.[4]
It is possible that some of the fortified settlements in the Negev highlands and Tel Masos, which is near
Archaeological evidence from the
Alternative theories of origin
In Genesis 14:7, the "field of the Amalekites" is mentioned, but the person who is named Amalek was not born yet.
Some commentators claim that this passage is a reference to the territory which was later inhabited by the Amalekites.
Alternatively, during the
John Gill believes the Amalekites of Genesis 14:7 were equivalent to the Hamite-Arabian Amalekites described by Muslim scholars. He argues the Amalekites were always allied with the Canaanites who descended from Ham, were conquered by the Shemite Chedorlaomer, existed before the Edomite Amalekites thus affirming Numbers 24:20, and that the Edomites never rescued these Amalekites from Saul's campaigns due to inter-tribal feuds.[67]
By the 19th century, many Western theologians believed that the nation of Amalek could have flourished before the time of Abraham. Matthew George Easton theorized that the Amalekites were not the descendants of Amalek by taking a literal approach to Genesis 14:7.[68] However, the modern biblical scholar Gerald L. Mattingly uses textual analysis to glean that the use of Amalekite in Genesis 14:7 is actually an anachronism,[4] and in the early 19th century, Richard Watson enumerated several speculative reasons for the existence of a "more ancient Amalek" than Abraham.[66]
In his exegesis of Numbers 24:20, concerning Balaam's utterance: "Amalek was the first one of the nations, but his end afterward will be even his perishing", Richard Watson attempts to associate this passage to the "first one of the nations" that developed post-Flood.[66] According to Samuel Cox, the Amalekites were the "first" in their hostility toward the Israelites.[69]
Abrahamic traditions
Jewish traditions
Amalek is the archetypal enemy of the Jews and the symbol of evil in
During the Purim festival, the Book of Esther is read in commemoration of the salvation of Jewish people from Haman, who plotted to kill all Jews in Persian Empire. It is customary for the audience to make noise and shout whenever "Haman" is mentioned, in order to desecrate his name, based on Exodus 17:14. It is also customary to recite Deuteronomy 25:17–18 on the Shabbat before Purim. This was because Haman was considered to be an Amalekite although this label is more likely to be symbolic rather than literal.[77][76][78] Some Iranophilic Jews interpreted Haman's Amalekite background as being anathema to both Jews and 'pure-blooded Iranians'.[49]
Christian traditions
Early Church fathers such as
John Gill believes that Amalek is a type of antichrist that 'raises his hand against the throne of God, his tabernacle and his saints'. He believes the phrase "from generation to generation" in Exodus 17:16 specifically refers to the Messianic Age, where Amalek and other antichristian states are exterminated by the Lamb.[80] Likewise, Charles Ellicott notes that the Amalekites were collectively called 'the sinners' in 1 Samuel 15:18, which was only used elsewhere for the Sodomites in Genesis 13:13.[81]
Carl Friedrich Keil and Franz Delitzsch state that the Amalekites were extinct by the second half of Hezekiah's reign.[82]
Professor Philip Jenkins notes that Christian extremists have historically labelled enemies such as Native Americans, Protestants, Catholics and Tutsis as Amalekites to justify their genocides.[83] Jews and victims of the Crusades were also called Amalekites. Because of this, modern Christian scholars have re-examined the Biblical narratives that inspired these atrocities using philology, literary analysis, archaeology and historical evidence.[23]
Islamic traditions
Islamic commentators believe the Amalekites were an ancient Arabian tribe. The monotheistic Ishmaelites evangelized to them in Mecca and later, supplanted their population. However, the paganism of the Amalekites and other Arabian tribes negatively influenced the Ishmaelites, including their approach to the Kaaba.[5]
Adam J. Silverstein observes that most of the medieval Muslim world ignored the Book of Esther or modified its details, despite their familiarity with the Persian Jewish community. This was caused by their attempt to reconcile the Biblical Esther with the Quranic Haman, who was the antagonist of the Exodus narrative, and Persian mythological historical traditions. Notable exceptions include Ibn Khaldūn, who affirmed the Amalekite origins of Haman and his antisemitic vendetta.[49]
Modern usage
Rabbis generally agree that Amalekites no longer exist, based on the argument that Sennacherib deported and mixed the nations, so it is no longer possible to determine who is an Amalekite.[84] Thus, the commandment to kill Amalekites is not practised by contemporary Jews.
Since the Holocaust, the phrase as it appears in Deuteronomy 25:17 is used as a call to witness. Yad Vashem, Israel's memorial to the Holocaust, features the phrase on a banner, and in letters between European Jews during the Holocaust, they plead with each other to "bear witness".[36]
In the
Conversely, some
During the 2023-2024 Israel–Hamas war (beginning in October 2023), Benjamin Netanyahu said that the Israeli government was "committed to completely eliminating this evil from the world", and he also stated: "You must remember what Amalek has done to you, says our Holy Bible. And we do remember".[91] At an argument to the International Court of Justice about allegations of genocide in the 2023 Israeli attack on Gaza to eliminate Hamas and get back their hostages, South Africa presented the comments as inciting genocide against the Palestinian people. Netanyahu denied that was his intention, stating the South African accusation reflected a "deep historical ignorance" since he was referring to Hamas, not Palestinians as a whole.[92][93]
See also
- Agag, an ancestor of Haman
- Anti-Judaism
- Antisemitism in the Arab world
- Antisemitism in Islam
- Jewish extremist terrorism
- Religious antisemitism
- Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East
Notes
References
Citations
- ^ "Amalek". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ a b Genesis 36:12; 1 Chronicles 1:36
- ^ a b Numbers 13:29
- ^ a b c d Mattingly 2000, p. 48.
- ^ S2CID 170567885– via De Gruyter.
- ^ Milani, Zohreh Babaahmadi (2022). "An Investigation into Qur'anic and Historical Reasons for the Immigration and Presence of the People of the Book in Arabia". International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding. 9 (8): 205–206 – via IJMMU.
- ^ a b c d Knight 1833, p. 411.
- ISBN 9781139492430.
- ^ M. Weippert, Semitische Nomaden des zweiten Jahrtausends. Biblica vol. 55, 1974, 265-280, 427-433
- ^ Ginzberg, Louis (1913). The Legends of the Jews. pp. 422–423.
- ^ For an Rabbanic explanation of Timna lineage see Kadari, Tamar (31 December 1999). "Timna, concubine of Eliphaz: Midrash and Aggadah". The Shalvi/Hyman Encyclopedia of Jewish Women. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
- ^ Feldman 2004, p. 8–9.
- ^ Numbers 24:20
- ISBN 9781410217226.
- ^ Rashi [1]
- ^ "Amalekite". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
- ^ a b Mills 1997, p. 21.
- ^ 1 Samuel 15:2
- ^ 1 Samuel 15:3
- ^ "1 Samuel 15: Matthew Poole Commentary". Biblehub. 2024. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024.
- ^ "1 Samuel 15: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers". Biblehub. 2024. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024.
- ^ "1 Samuel 15: Benson Commentary". Biblehub. 2024. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024.
- ^ S2CID 228959516– via Taylor & Francis Online.
- ^ 1 Samuel 30:9–20
- ^ 2 Samuel 1:6–10
- ^ 2 Samuel 1:16
- ^ Black, Matthew, editor (1962), Peake's Commentary on the Bible, Camden, NJ: Thomas Nelson and Sons
- ISBN 0-13-614934-0.
- ^ "Mishneh Torah, Negative Mitzvot". Sefaria. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
- ^ "Mishneh Torah, Positive Mitzvot". Sefaria. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
- ^ "Mishneh Torah, Positive Mitzvot". Sefaria. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
- ^ Maimonides (Sefer Hamitzvot, end of positive commandments), Nachmanides (Commentary to Exodus 17:16), Sefer HaYereim (435), Hagahot Maimoniyot (Hilchot Melachim 5:5)
- ISBN 1-57819-333-8, p. 93
- ^ Klapper, Aryeh (4 March 2020). "How Not to Talk About Amalek". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 2020-03-04. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
- ^ Mishneh Torah, Hilchot Melachim uMilchamot, 6:1 and 6:4
- ^ a b Kampeas, Ron (2024-01-16). "Netanyahu rejects South Africa's claim that his quote about 'Amalek' was a call to genocide". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 13 February 2024.
- ^ Commentary to Deuteronomy 25
- ^ Shemot Zachor 646
- ^ Introduction to positive commandments, Beer Mayim Hayim, letter Alef
- ^ Sassoon, Isaac S.D. (May 14, 2015). "Obliterating Cherem". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2024.
- ^ Cardazo, Nathan Lopes (October 19, 2016). "The Deliberately Flawed Divine Torah". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024.
- ^ "1 Samuel 15: Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers". Biblehub. Archived from the original on 2014-11-08.
- ^ "1 Samuel 14: Henry's Complete Commentary on the Bible". StudyLight.org. 2022. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024.
- ^ "1 Samuel 15: Gill's Exposition". Biblehub. Archived from the original on 2013-12-17.
- ISBN 978-0-19-253900-7.
- ISBN 978-0801072758.
- ^ Copan, Paul (Fall 2010). "How Could God Command Killing the Canaanites?". Enrichment Journal: 138–143.
- ISBN 978-1540964557.
- ^ ISBN 978-0198797227.
- ^ Harris, Michael J. Divine Command Ethics: Jewish and Christian perspectives. pp. 137–138.
- ^ Elkins, Dov Peretz; Treu, Abigail. The Bible's Top Fifty Ideas: The essential concepts everyone should know. pp. 315–316.
- ^ Sorabji, Richard; Rodin, David. The Ethics of War: Shared problems in different traditions. p. 98.
- ^ Rogerson, John William; Carroll, M. Daniel. Theory and Practice in Old Testament Ethics. p. 92.
- ISBN 978-0-19-976526-3.
- S2CID 159560414.
- S2CID 170860040.
- S2CID 228959516.
- ^ Taggar-Cohen, Ada (October 6, 2022). "War at the Command of the Gods". TheTorah.com. Archived from the original on February 9, 2024.
- ISBN 978-3110223514.
- ISBN 978-1112115349.
- ^ Aharon Kempinski, "Tel Masos: Its Importance in Relation to the Settlement of the Tribes of Israel in the Northern Negev," Expedition Magazine vol. 20, issue 4 1978.
- ^ Mattingly 2000, p. 49.
- ^ Nissim Amzallag,"A Metallurgical Perspective on the Birth of Ancient Israel," Entangled Religions 12.2 (2021)
- ^ Bruins, Hendrik J. (2022). "Masseboth Shrine at Horvat Haluqim: Amalekites in the Negev Highlands-Sinai Region? Evaluating the Evidence" (PDF). Negev, Dead Sea and Arava Studies. 14 (2–4): 121–142.
- ^ Including Rashi
- ^ a b c d Watson 1832, p. 50.
- ^ "Genesis 14 Gill's Exposition". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024.
- ^ Easton 1894, p. 35, Am'alekite.
- ^ Cox 1884, pp. 125–126.
- ISBN 978-3-11-018355-9.
- ^ a b * Masalha, Nur (2000). Imperial Israel and the Palestinians: the politics of expansion. Pluto Press. pp. 129–131.
- Stern, Josef (2004). "Maimonides on Amalek, Self-Corrective Mechanisms, and the War against Idolatry"". In Hartman, David; Malino, Jonathan W. (eds.). Judaism and modernity: the religious philosophy of David Hartman. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 360–362.
- Hunter, Alastair G. (2003). "Denominating Amalek: Racist stereotyping in the Bible and the Justification of Discrimination". In Bekkenkamp, Jonneke; Sherwood, Yvonne (eds.). Sanctified aggression: legacies of biblical and post-biblical vocabularies. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 99–105.
- ISBN 978-0-691-19039-6.
- ^ Roth, Daniel. "Shabbat Zachor: "Remember what Amalek did to you!" But why did he do it? Can we reconcile with our eternal sworn enemies?" Pardes from Jerusalem, 18 Feb. 2018. Elmad by Pardes.
- ^ Zaimov, Stoyan (April 29, 2017). "ISIS a Reenactment of Biblical War Between Israel and the Amalekites, Military Analysts Say". Christian Post. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16.
- ^ a b Koperwas, Josh. "Destroying Amalek: Removing Doubt & Insecurity". Sefaria. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024.
- ^ a b "Esther 3 Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges". Biblehub. Archived from the original on Jul 2, 2023.
- ^ Finley, Mordecai (21 February 2018). "Unmasking Purim, Fighting Amalek: Behind the whimsy of this holiday lie some deep lessons for living". Jewish Journal. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ Hirsch, Emil; Seligsohn, M.; Schechter, Solomon (1904). "HAMAN THE AGAGITE". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. p. 189–190. Retrieved 13 February 2017
- – via ResearchGate.
- ^ "Exodus 17 Gill's Exposition". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024.
- ^ "1 Samuel 15 Ellicott's Commentary for English Readers". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024.
- ^ "1 Chronicles 4 Keil and Delitzsch OT Commentary". Biblehub.com. 2024. Archived from the original on February 12, 2024.
- ISBN 978-0061990724.
- ^ Eynei Kol Ḥai, 73, on Sanhedrin 96b. Also Minchat Chinuch, parshat Ki Tetze, mitzvah 434.
- ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey (May 24, 2004). "Among the Settlers". The New Yorker. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
- ^ Lanard, Noah. "The Dangerous History Behind Netanyahu's Amalek Rhetoric". Mother Jones. Retrieved 15 November 2023.
- ^ a b c Elliott Horowitz (2018). Reckless Rites:Purim and the Legacy of Jewish Violence. Princeton University Press. pp. 2–4.
- ^ Nur Masalha. Imperial Israel and the Palestinians. Pluto Press. p. 113.
- ^ Hebrew Union College Press. p. 281.
- S2CID 154626003– via SageJournals.
- ^ "Netanyahu invokes 'Amalek' narrative in speech about expanding ground operation in Gaza".
- ^ "PM's office says it's 'preposterous' to say his invoking Amalek was a genocide call". Times of Israel. 16 January 2024.
- ^ "Harsh Israeli rhetoric against Palestinians becomes central to South Africa's genocide case". Associated Press. 18 January 2024.
Books
- Cox, Samuel (1884). Balaam: An Exposition and a Study. London: K. Paul, Trench, & Company. p. 125.
- Easton, Matthew George (1894). Illustrated Bible Dictionary (2nd ed.). London: T. Nelson.
- Feldman, Louis H (2004). Remember Amalek!: Vengeance, Zealotry, and Group Destruction in the Bible according to Philo, Pseudo-Philo, and Josephus. Hebrew Union College Press. ISBN 0878204636.
- Mattingly, Gerald L. (2000). "Amalek, Amalekites". Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (David Noel Freedman, Allen C. Myers, Astrid B. Beck ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802824004.
- Knight, Charles (1833). Penny Cyclopaedia, Volumes 1-2. Great Britain.
- Kugler, Gili (2021). "Metaphysical Hatred and Sacred Genocide: The Questionable Role of Amalek in Biblical Literature". Journal of Genocide Research. 23: 1–16. S2CID 228959516.
- Mills, Watson E. (1997). "Amalek/Amalekites". In Roger Bullard (ed.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible (3rd and corr. print. ed.). Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737.
- Sagi, Avi (1994). The Punishment of Amalek in Jewish Tradition: Coping with the Moral Problem, Harvard Theological Review Vol.87, No.3, p. 323-46.
- Watson, Richard (1832). A Biblical and theological dictionary. London: John Mason.
External links
- Israeli PM invokes the Amalek in the context of the war on Gaza.
- Wipe Out Amalek, Today? chabad.org
- Amalek, Based on the teachings of the Lubavitcher Rebbe
- Remember Amalek: A lesson in Divine Providence
- Remembering Amalek Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
- Latznu: Popular Culture and the Disciples of Amalek
- Antiquities of the Jews - by Josephus Flavius
- The Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901-6: Amalek
- A Kabbalistic view of Amalek
- Amalec - Catholic Encyclopedia article
- Between Rephidim and Jerusalem - Amalek symbolism in relations between Israelis and Palestinians
- Contemporary Amalek - Hirhurim - a blog post by Rabbi Naziswere considered Amalekites
- "Amalek" (Passages 1999) A discussion with R. Eliezer Breitowitz & Dr. Elliott Malamet